t 


4   k 


Gift   of 
Mrs.    i^eonora  B.    Lucas 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  witin  funding  from 

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I 


THE  DAWN  OF  A  NEW  LIFE 
After  the  painting  by  Thomas  Shields  Clark 


COMPOSrilON  AND 
RIIKTORIC 


BY 


WILLIAM  M.  TANNER 

INSTRUCTOR    IN    ENGLISH    IN    BOSTON    UNIVERSITY 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  VORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  -  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY  WILLIAM   M.  TANNER 

ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 

PRINTED   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA 

630.11 


CINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON-  U.S.A. 


10 


PREFACE 

This  book  aims  throughout  to  promote  self-cultivation  in 
N^  correct  and  effective  speech  and  writing.  Better  English  for 
^  immediate  use,  rather  than  the  futile  attempt  to  ''develop 
I    writers,"  is  its  goal. 

The  capacity,  the  needs,  and  the  interests  of  the  average  stu- 
I    dent  have  at  all  times  been  considered  in  the  preparation  of  the 
^  text.  The  specimens  of  composition,  selected  from  both  stand- 
ard and  contemporary  writers,  have  been  chosen  for  their  at- 
tractiveness to  modern  students  as  well  as  for  their  illustrative 
aptness.    The  subjects  suggested  for  oral  and  written  composi- 
tion afford  boys  and  girls,   country-bred  and  city-bred,   op- 
portunity to  use  material  familiar  to  them  through  everyday 
fi[^  observation  and  experience.    Numerous  exercises  in  oral  nar- 
ration and  exposition,  frequent  assignments  in  letter-writing, 
and  definite  practice  in  the  writing  required  of  students  in  other 
school   subjects,— note-taking,    translating   from    foreign    lan- 
guages, and  the  writing  of  reports  and  examination  papers.— all 
furnish  specific  motivation  for  the  study  of  composition  and 
render  the  instruction  immediately  usable.    The  twenty-one 
full-page  illustrations,  which  are  made  the  basis  of  a  number  of 
>  exercises,  include  a  rather  wide  range  of  subjects  that  appeal  to 
^  the  present  generation  of  boys  and  girls. 
^      Besides  the  usual  equipment  found  in  the  average  manual  of 
^J^composition,  the  present  book  contains  a  large  amount  of  im- 
^     portant  supplementary  material  commonly  available  only  in 
>A^handbooks.    This  additional  material  enhances  the  value  of  the 
VlDook  for  purposes  of  recitation  assignment  and  makes  it  useful 
»     for  frequent  reference  after  it  has  been  completed  as  a  class  text 


4565412 


iv  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Though  the  arrangement  of  the  first  three  parts  indicates  the 
relative  order  in  which  each  topic  may  be  profitably  taken  up, 
the  entire  book  is  readily  adaptable  to  a  variety  of  conditions 
and  special  needs  as  well  as  to  the  particular  pedagogical  ideas 
of  the  individual  teacher. 

Part  One  consists  of  an  introduction  to  oral  and  written  ex- 
pression. Practice  in  oral  composition  and  in  the  retelling  of 
another  person's  thought  constitutes  a  natural  approach  to  the 
writing  of  original  compositions.  Detailed  instructions  and  well- 
planned  exercises  in  the  proper  choice  of  a  subject,  the  selection 
and  orderly  arrangement  of  material,  the  making  of  a  simple 
outline  and  its  logical  development,  and  the  thorough  revision 
and  careful  rewriting  of  each  composition  furnish  the  student 
necessary  guidance  in  his  efforts  at  original  expression.  Letter- 
writing  affords  valuable  practice  in  the  most  natural  and  fa- 
miliar type  of  written  composition. 

Part  Two  deals  with  the  units  of  composition :  the  paragraph, 
the  sentence,  and  the  word.  The  writing  of  paragraph  composi- 
tions provides  considerable  drill  in  paragraph  development.  The 
four  chapters  devoted  to  the  sentence  include  a  more  extensive 
treatment  of  sentence  structure  than  is  to  be  found  in  most  text- 
books of  composition.  Punctuation  and  grammar  as  they  func- 
tion in  sentence  construction  are  treated  in  a  practical  way.  The 
chapter  on  cautions  in  grammar  and  sentence  structure  supplies 
the  student  with  the  means  of  correcting  many  faults  in  his 
everyday  speech  and  writing.  The  four  chapters  devoted  to 
diction  will  help  him  to  overcome  errors  in  his  diction  and  will 
arouse  in  him  an  interest  in  word  study. 

Part  Three  contains  a  concise  discussion  of  the  four  forms  of 
prose  discourse.  As  many  illustrative  selections  are  included  as 
space  permits.  Though  formal  argument  receives  its  share  of 
attention,  greater  emphasis  is  placed  on  oral  debating  and  free 
informal  discussion.    In  each  of  the  first  four  chapters  in  this 


PREFACE  V 

section  there  are  appropriate  exercises  in  letter-writinj^.  A  spe- 
cial chapter  on  the  short  story  is  added  to  the  discussion  of 
narration. 

Part  Four  is  intended  for  frequent  reference  by  the  student, 
though  each  chapter  may  be  profitably  assigned  for  close,  sys- 
tematic study.  The  brief  grammatical  review  supplements  the 
chapters  in  Part  Two  dealing  with  sentence  structure.  Exercises 
in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX  may  be  utilized  for  drill  in  parsing  and 
in  sentence  analysis.  The  final  chapter,  containing  the  principal 
rules  of  spelling,  a  list  of  the  common  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and 
more  than  six  hundred  words  that  are  often  misspelled,  will  have 
decided  value  for  a  majority  of  students. 

The  material  included  in  the  six  sections  of  the  Appendix  will 
contribute  appreciably  to  the  student's  equipment  both  in  the 
study  of  literary  selections  and  in  writing. 

From  twelve  years  of  experience  in  the  teaching  of  English, 
and  from  association  and  discussions  with  progressive  teachers 
in  many  schools,  the  author  has  evolved  the  plan  of  organization 
and  derived  a  great  amount  of  the  material  for  the  present  book. 
As  a  teacher  in  the  high  schools  of  Texas,  and  later  as  instructor 
of  a  large  number  of  freshman  students  in  one  of  the  state  nor- 
mal schools  and  in  the  University  of  Texas,  the  author  had  op- 
portunity to  observe  closely  the  product  of  the  high  school  and 
to  study  from  both  points  of  view  the  problem  of  composition- 
teaching. 

For  most  valuable  aid  in  the  preparation  of  this  book  the 
author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  special  indebtedness  to  the 
authors  of  Lockwood  and  Emerson's  "Composition  and  Rheto- 
ric," by  whose  kind  permission  he  has  freely  embodied  in  his  text 
methods  and  material  made  familiar  by  a  long  acquaintance  with 
that  excellent  book,  which  in  its  own  day  was  probably  the  best 
in  its  field.  If  in  the  making  of  this  textbook  to  meet  present 
conditions  and  supply  modern  teaching  needs  the  author  has 


vi  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

succeeded  in  catching  something  of  the  spirit  of  practical  help- 
fulness to  pupil  and  to  teacher  that  characterized  that  book  of 
an  earlier  period,  his  greatest  desire  will  have  been  realized. 

To  the  following  persons  grateful  acknowledgment  is  made 
for  their  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  book :  to  Mr.  Frank 
W.  Cushwa,  of  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  Exeter,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  to  Mr.  A.  B.  De  Mille,  formerly  of  Milton  Academy, 
Milton,  Massachusetts,  for  a  thorough  reading  of  the  manuscript 
and  for  many  helpful  suggestions ;  to  Miss  Caroline  M.  Doonan, 
of  the  Newton  Technical  High  School,  for  valuable  criticism  of 
the  proofsheets  as  the  book  was  going  through  the  press. 

The  selections  from  Hawthorne  are  used  through  the  courtesy 
of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  The  frontispiece,  "The  Dawn 
of  a  New  Life,"  is  reproduced,  by  permission,  from  the  original 
painting,  which  hangs  in  the  Berkshire  Athenaeum  and  Museum, 
Pittsfield,  Massachusetts.  The  two  student  letters  in  Chapter  VI 
(pp.  1 1 7-1 19)  are  reprinted  by  permission  of  the  Committee  on 
English  of  the  Newton  Public  Schools,  Newton,  Massachusetts. 
The  right  to  use  other  selections  and  illustrations  has  been  duly 
acknowledged  where  the  material  appears  in  the  text. 

To  the  members  of  the  editorial  staff  of  Ginn  and  Company 
and  to  the  members  of  the  Athenaeum  Press  it  is  impossible  to 
express  adequately  the  author's  indebtedness  and  his  sincere 
appreciation  of  their  inestimable  service  and  splendid  coopera- 
tion in  the  production  of  this  book. 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  THE  STUDY  OF  COMPOSITION i 

Composition  defined,  i.  Kinds  of  composition,  2.  Essentials  of  ef- 
fective composition,  2.  Reasons  for  studying  composition,  3.  The 
mastery  of  English  as  a  tool,  5.    Self-cultivation  in  English,  6. 


CHAPTER  II.    ORAL  COMPOSITION       8 

Importance  of  oral  composition,  8.  Knowledge  of  the  subject,  10. 
Clearness  of  thought,  14.  The  value  of  an  outline  in  planning  a 
composition,  16.  Clearness  of  speech,  22.  Correctness  of  speech,  24. 
Vividness  of  speech,  26.    Two  devices  for  keeping  attention,  28. 

CHAPTER  III.  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION:  REPRODUCTION.     .    32 

Oral  and  written  composition,  32.  The  proper  form  for  written  com- 
position, 33.  Requirements  of  learning  to  write,  36.  The  value  of 
conscious  imitation  and  emulation,  37.  Self-cultivation  in  English 
through  reproduction,  41.  Retelling  closely,  42.  Translation  a  val- 
uable means  of  retelling  closely,  49.  Retelling  by  condensing,  51. 
Taking  notes  on  what  we  read,  53.  Taking  notes  on  what  we  hear,  55. 
Writing  examination  papers,  60.    Retelling  by  expanding,  62. 

CHAPTER  IV.    PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  ...    67 

Approach  to  original  composition,  67.  Requirements  of  a  good  com- 
position, 68.  Choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject,  68.  Choice  of  the 
title,  69.  Point  of  view,  70.  Selection  of  material,  72.  Arranging 
the  material  by  means  of  an  outhne,  74.  The  law  of  unity,  74.  The 
law  of  coherence,  75.  The  law  of  emphasis,  78.  The  form  of  an  out- 
line, 79. 

CHAPTER  V.     WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION      .     .         86 

Developing  the  outline  into  a  coniposition,  86.  The  beginning  of  a 
composition,  91.  The  ending  of  a  composition,  92.  Transitions  from 
paragraph  to  paragraph,  94.  Revising  a  composition  before  it  is  sub- 
mitted, 95.    Rewriting  a  corrected  composition,  97. 


viii  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VI.    LETTER-WRITING 104 

Importance  of  letter-writing,  104.  General  form  of  letters,  104. 
Parts  of  a  letter,  106.  Qualities  of  the  friendly  letter,  iii.  Informal 
notes,  120.  Formal  notes,  122.  The  business  letter,  124.  Qualities 
of  the  business  letter,  126. 

PART  TWO 

CHAPTER  VII.  THE  PARAGRAPH 131 

Definition  of  the  paragraph,  131.  Length  of  the  paragraph,  132. 
Unity  in  the  paragraph,  133.  The  topic  sentence,  133.  Position  of 
the  topic  sentence,  133.  Coherence  in  the  paragraph,  140.  Methods 
of  paragraph  development,  140:  (i)  By  repetition,  140.  (2)  By  de- 
tails, 141.  (3)  By  definition,  143.  (4)  By  specific  examples,  144. 
(5)  By  comparison  and  contrast,  144.  (6)  By  supporting  the  topic 
statement  with  reasons,  146.  Connecting  words  and  phrases,  150. 
Emphasis  in  the  paragraph,  152.    Transitional  paragraphs,  155. 

CHAPTER  Vni.   THE  SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSID- 
ERED  159 

Nature  and  purpose  of  the  sentence,  159.  The  simple  sentence,  159. 
Phrases,  160.  The  compound  sentence,  165.  The  complex  sentence, 
170,  Noun  clauses,  171.  Adjective  clauses,  173.  Adverbial  clauses, 
174.  The  compound-complex  sentence,  180.  Kinds  of  sentences  ac- 
cording to  use,  181.  Phrases  and  dependent  clauses  incorrectly  used 
as  sentences,  182. 

CHAPTER    IX.     THE    SENTENCE    RHETORICALLY    CONSID- 
ERED      186 

Kinds  of  sentences,  186.  Effect  of  different  kinds  of  sentences,  187. 
Unity  in  the  sentence,  190.  Coherence  in  the  sentence,  195.  Em- 
phasis in  the  sentence,  201.    Euphony  in  the  sentence,  204. 

CHAPTER    X.    PUNCTUATION 211 

Requirements  of  accurate  punctuation,  211.  General  directions  for 
punctuation,  212.  The  comma,  212.  The  semicolon,  221.  The  colon, 
224.  The  period,  226.  The  question  mark,  229.  The  exclamation 
mark,  229.  The  dash,  230.  Parentheses,  233.  Brackets,  234.  Quo- 
tation marks,  235.  The  apostrophe,  238.  The  hyphen,  239.  The 
caret,  239.  Points  and  asterisks,  239.  Italics,  239.  Capital  letters,  241. 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  XT.    SPECIAL  CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  AND  SEN- 
TENCE STRUCTURE 248 

Agiccment  of  subject  and  predicate,  240.  Nouns  and  pronouns, 
253.  Case,  253.  Number,  255.  Agreement  of  relative  pronouns, 
256.  Reference  of  pronouns,  256.  Adjectives  and  adverbs,  259. 
Expressions  of  comparison,  259.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  not  to  be 
confused  in  use,  260.  Verbs,  203.  Principal  parts  of  difficult  verbs, 
263.  Six  troublesome  verbs,  264.  Uses  of  shall  and  will,  should  and 
would,  266.  Additional  cautions  regarding  tense,  271.  Uses  of  the 
subjunctive  mood,  273.  Reference  of  participles,  274.  Reference  of 
verbal  nouns,  275.  Reference  of  infinitives,  276.  Prepositions  and 
conjunctions,  277.  Improper  omission  of  words,  278.  Double  sub- 
jects and  double  objects,  281.  Double  negatives,  281.  When  and 
where  clauses  wrongly  used,  281.  Because  clause  wrongly  used,  282. 
The  period  fault,  282.  The  comma  fault,  283.  Faulty  coordination 
in  compound  sentences,  285.  Parallel  construction,  287.  Shift  in 
point  of  view,  288. 

CHAPTER  XII.    THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS 292 

The  English  language  and  its  sources,  292.  Diction,  293.  Good  use, 
294.  Violations  of  good  use,  204.  Barbarisms,  294.  Solecisms,  295. 
Improprieties,  296.  Slang.  296.  Obsolete  and  archaic  words,  297. 
Technical  words,  207.    A  list  of  common  errors  in  diction,  298. 

CHAPTER  XIII.   THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS 316 

Effectiveness  of  diction,  316.  Exactness,  316.  Appropriateness,  317. 
Expressiveness,  319.  The  suggestive  value  of  figures  of  speech,  320. 
Violations  of  effectiveness,  327.  Needless  repetition,  327.  Exagger- 
ation, 328.  Trite  expressions,  328.  Hackneyed  quotations,  329.  Over- 
use of  figurative  language,  329.    "Fine  writing,"  330. 

CHAPTER  XIV.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  LARGE  VOCAB- 
ULARY   333 

Poverty  in  words  and  thoughts,  333.  Anglo-Saxon  words,  333. 
Classical  words,  334.  Idioms,  334.  Synonyms  and  antonyms,  335. 
How  to  acquire  a  large  vocabulary,  336. 

CHAPTER  XV.    THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY 339 

Importance  of  the  study  of  the  dictionary,  339.  Unabridged  and 
abridged  dictionaries,  330.  .Arrangement  of  an  unabridged  diction- 
ar>',  340.    Information  about  words,  341. 


X  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

PART  THREE 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XVI.   SIMPLE  NARRATION 34S 

Simple  narration  defined,  345.  The  three  essentials,  345.  Unity  in 
simple  narration,  348.  Coherence  in  simple  narration,  350.  Empha- 
sis in  simple  narration,  350.  Oral  narration,  351.  Anecdotes,  353. 
Tales,  355.  News  stories,  356.  Letters,  350.  Diaries,  360.  Biog- 
raphies, 360.     Autobiographies,  361.     Travel  sketches,  362. 

CHAPTER  XVII.     DESCRIPTION 365 

Description  defined,  365.  Expository  description,  365.  Artistic  de- 
scription, 366.  Unity  in  description,  366.  Point  of  view,  367. 
Singleness  of  impression,  368.  The  fundamental  image,  370.  Coher- 
ence in  description,  370.  Emphasis  in  description,  371.  Vividness 
in  description,  371.  How  to  describe  a  place,  375.  How  to  describe 
an  object,  378.  How  to  describe  an  animal,  380.  How  to  describe 
a  person,  382.  Description  by  effect,  385.  Principal  aids  in  writing 
description,  386. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    EXPOSITION 388 

Exposition  defined,  388.  The  importance  of  clearness,  388.  Oral 
exposition,  389.  Methods  of  exposition,  390.  Definitions,  390.  Ex- 
planations of  processes,  394.  Discussions  of  facts  and  ideas,  397. 
Essays,  400.  Eb^pository  biography,  405.  Reviews  and  criticisms, 
407.    Newspaper  editorials,  410.    Expository  letters,  413. 

CHAPTER  XEX.    ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING 415 

Argument  defined,  415.  Conviction  and  persuasion,  416.  Informal 
argument,  417.  Formal  argument,  421.  The  value  of  debating,  421. 
Subjects  for  debate,  421.  Wording  the  question,  422.  Exposition  of 
the  question,  423.  Definition  of  terms,  423.  Conflict  of  opinion, 
424.  Proof,  425.  Refutation,  426.  Burden  of  proof,  426.  The  brief, 
427.    Developing  the  brief  into  an  argument,  431. 


CHAPTER  XX.     THE  SHORT  STORY , 


The  short  story  defined,  434.  Characteristics  of  the  short  story,  434 
Essentials  of  the  short  story,  435.  Singleness  of  impression,  442 
Plot,  443.  Dominant  incident,  445.  Characters,  446.  The  compli- 
cation and  its  resolution,  446.  Setting,  447.  Point  of  view,  447 
Where  to  begin  a  short  story,  448.  How  to  begin  a  short  story,  448 
The  title,  449.  Aids  in  writing  a  short  story,  449.  Sources  of  short 
stories,  451. 


434 


CONTENTS  xi 

PART  FOUR 

PAGH 

CHAPTER  XXI.    A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR 457 

Nouns,  457.  Pronouns,  402.  Adjectives,  466.  Adverbs,  470.  Verbs, 
471.  Prepositions,  483.  Conjunctions,  484.  Interjections,  485.  Sen- 
tence analysis,  485. 

CHAPTER  XXII.    SPELLING 487 

Importance  of  learning  to  spell  correctly,  487.  Rules  for  spelling, 
487.  Helps  in  learning  to  spell,  400.  Syllabication,  491.  Prefi.xes 
and  suffi.\es,  4Q2.  Spelling-list,  494.  Words  frequently  confused,  498. 
Proper  names  frequently  misspelled,  500. 

APPENDIX  A.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDYING  THE  PRINCIPAL 
TYPES  OF  LITERATURE i 

APPENDIX  B.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  USING  A  SCHOOL  LIBRARY      viii 

APPENDIX  C.    VERSIFICATION xv 

APPENDIX  D.    A  LIST  OF  COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS  .     .     xxv 

APPENDIX  E.    MARKS  USED  IN  CORRECTING  COMPOSITIONS  xxviii 

APPENDIX  F.    MARKS  USED  IN  PROOFREADING x.xx 

INDEX xxxiii 


LIST  OF  FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

I'Ar.E 

The  Dawn  of  a  New  Life Frontispiece 

Robinson  Crusoe  opens  the  Chest 26 

The  Fight  in  the  Rigging 54 

A  Marble  Tournament 72 

Putting  the  Shot 04 

Camping  in  Colorado 116 

A  City  Market 146 

The  Sagebrush  of  Idaho 172 

Man's  Conquest  over  Nature 198 

Off! 220 

Harvesting  Ice 258 

Flotsam  Castle 296 

The  Skyscrapers 324 

The  Pirate 548 

A  May-Day  Frolic 360 

Yosemite  Falls 3~° 

The  Village  Censor 382 

The  Lights  of  Industry 402 

Thrift  and  Prosperity 424 

Strolling   Players 44S 

The  End  of  the  Trail 4/6 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 
PART  ONE 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  STUDY  OF  COMPOSITION 

1.  Introduction.  As  we  enter  upon  the  study  of  composition 
we  may  ask :  What  is  composition  ?  Why  should  I  study  it  ? 
How  can  I  master  it?  To  give  preliminary  answers  to  these 
questions  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter.  To  provide 
a  practical  treatment  of  these  and  other  related  questions  is 
the  function  of  the  remainder  of  the  book. 

2.  Composition  defined.  Whenever  we  communicate  with 
other  persons,  either  by  speech  or  by  writing,  we  are  compos- 
ing; that  is,  we  are  putting  together  thoughts  so  selected  and 
arranged  as  to  convey  our  meaning.  Expression  by  means  of 
speech  is  termed  oral  composition.  Expression  by  means  of 
writing  is  termed  written  cofnposition.  In  order  to  express 
ourselves  clearly  and  well,  we  should  learn  to  exercise  care  in 
the  choice  and  arrangement  of  our  thoughts  and  acquire  skill 
in  the  use  of  words  and  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  para- 
graphs, and  whole  compositions. 

Composition,  like  any  other  art,  is  governed  by  established 
rules  and  principles.  These  have  been  discovered  through 
practice  by  generations  of  speakers  and  writers  before  us.  For 
our  convenience  and  profit  they  have  been  brought  together 
and  clearly  stated  as  the  rules  of  grammar  and  the  principles  of 


2  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

rhetoric.  Grammar  is  the  science  that  deals  with  the  forms  and 
the  constructions  of  words.  Rhetoric  consists  of  the  study  of 
the  principles  governing  the  clear,  forceful,  and  elegant  expres- 
sion of  thoughts.  Composition,  therefore,  is  the  expression  of 
what  we  have  to  say  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  grammar 
and  the  principles  of  rhetoric. 

3.  Units  of  composition.  The  whole  composition,  which  is 
the  largest  unit  of  expression,  is  made  up  of  three  subordinate 
units;  namely,  the  paragraph,  the  sentence,  and  the  word. 
These  four  units  will  be  fully  discussed  and  illustrated  in  later 
chapters. 

4.  Kinds  of  composition.  According  to  our  purpose  as  speak- 
ers and  writers,  we  may  make  our  composition  (i)  narration, 
(2)  description,  (3)  exposition,  or  (4)  argument.  By  means  of 
narration  we  seek  to  entertain  our  hearers  or  readers  by  re- 
counting an  experience,  relating  an  incident,  or  retelling  a 
story.  By  the  use  of  description  we  attempt  to  represent  vividly 
for  them  a  scene,  an  object,  a  person,  a  mood,  or  an  impression 
that  has  interested  us.  By  means  of  exposition  we  endeavor 
to  explain  something  to  them.  By  employing  argument  we  try 
to  lead  them  to  believe  as  we  do  and  to  act  as  we  desire 
them  to  act. 

5.  Sources  of  material  for  compositions.  Though  the  sub- 
jects on  which  we  may  speak  and  write  are  infinite,  we  derive 
these  subjects,  and  the  material  for  developing  them,  from  a 
relatively  small  number  of  sources.  The  most  common  of  these 
sources  are  personal  experience,  observation,  conversation,  lec- 
tures, and  reading. 

6.  Essentials  of  effective  composition.  Before  we  can  make 
a  subject  interesting  to  others  we  must  understand  it  thor- 
oughly ourselves  and  must  learn  how  to  present  it  clearly  and 
effectively.  The  manner  of  expressing  our  thoughts  is  next  in 
importance  to  the  thoughts  themselves.  As  speakers  and  writ- 


THE  STUDY  OF  COMPOSITION  3 

ers  we  should  constantly  endeavor  to  make  it  easy  for  others 
to  understand  what  we  have  to  say.  This  we  can  learn  to  do  by 
conforming  to  the  three  essentials  of  effective  composition; 
namely,  clear  thinking,  adequate  expression,  and  good  jonn. 

Few  of  us  are  endowed  by  nature  with  the  ability  to  think 
clearly.  This  ability  we  may  acquire,  however,  by  limiting  our- 
selves to  definite  subjects  which  we  are  capable  of  handling ;  by 
forcing  ourselves  to  decide  what  it  is  we  wish  to  say  about  the 
subject  and  for  what  purpose  we  are  going  to  say  it ;  and  by  per- 
sistent care  in  making  our  words  express  exactly  what  we  mean. 

Adequate  expression  requires  that  our  composition  be  prop- 
erly adjusted  to  the  subject  and  carefully  adapted  to  the  in- 
terest  and  understanding  of  our  hearers  and  readers.  Out  of 
all  the  possible  ways  we  may  think  of  and  experiment  with  in 
expressing  our  thoughts  we  should  try  to  discover  the  one  most 
effective  way.  Only  by  doing  this  can  we  attain  to  adequate 
expression. 

Good  form  in  composition  is  at  all  times  essential.  We 
should  therefore  make  conformity  to  the  following  require- 
ments habitual : 

1.  Effective  oral  delivery. 

2.  Proper  arrangement  of  manuscript. 

3.  Strict  observance  of  the  rules  of  grammar. 

4.  Care  in  the  choice  of  words  and  in  the  use  of  idioms. 

5.  Correct  spelling. 

6.  Intelligent  punctuation. 

Violations  of  these  requirements  hinder  hearers  and  readers 
in  their  attempt  to  get  a  clear  understanding  of  our  thoughts, 
and  for  this  reason  greatly  detract  from  our  efforts  at  clear 
thinking  and  adequate  expression. 

7.  Reasons  for  studying  composition.  The  ability  to  think 
and  to  convey  his  thoughts  through  speech  to  others  of  his 
kind  distinguishes  man  from  the  lower  animals.  The  ability  to 


4  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

think  accurately  and  to  express  his  thoughts  clearly  and  per- 
manently distinguishes  the  educated  man,  who  leads,  from  the 
uneducated  man,  who  must  be  led.  During  our  school  life  the 
mastery  of  the  English  language  is  of  immediate  importance, 
for  our  progress  in  every  other  subject  is  dependent  on  our  com- 
mand of  English.  In  later  life  this  mastery  will  prove  of  even 
greater  importance  in  promoting  our  success  and  happiness. 

Perhaps  in  other  days  a  man  who  was  too  indolent  to  give  at- 
tention to  his  writing  might  have  avoided  the  necessity;  crude 
expression  might  have  served  him.  But  today,  under  the  influence 
of  our  quickened  civilization,  a  man  can  scarcely  hope  to  become 
an  important  factor  in  society  unless  he  can  express  himself  with 
some  degree  of  adequacy.  People  will  not  stop  to  listen  to  him  if 
he  cannot  explain  his  wants  clearly  and  without  unnecessary  hesi- 
tation ;  and  they  will  not  do  what  he  desires  if  he  cannot  convince 
them  and  move  them  to  action.  And  if  a  man  is  unable  to  use  his 
mother  tongue  accurately,  he  not  only  turns  many  away  from  him 
day  by  day  because  of  his  obvious  habits  of  carelessness,  but  when 
the  supreme  opportunity  comes,  he  is,  through  his  lack  of  power, 
unable  to  reach  a  large  part  of  his  audience  of  readers.  Unless 
he  is  content  to  be  a  third-rate  lawyer,  minister,  business  man,  or 
scientist,  and  is  willing  to  be  forever  classed  as  uneducated,  he 
must  be  able  to  increase  the  value  of  his  thoughts  by  expressing 
them  skillfully.^ 

Interested,  intelligent  study  of  composition  will  enable  us  to 
develop  greater  skill  in  speaking  and  in  writing.  Some  of  us  may 
discover  that  we  have  thoughts  to  which  we  desire  to  give  liter- 
ary expression.  This  desire  we  may  ultimately  accomplish  if  we 
first  train  ourselves  in  the  clear,  accurate,  and  forceful  expres- 
sion of  the  thoughts  we  now  have.  Our  immediate  aim  in  studying 
composition  should  be  the  mastery  oj  English  as  a  necessary  tool. 

iprom  "The  Art  of  Writing  English,"  copyrighted,  IQ13,  by  R.  W.  Brown 
and  N.  W.  Barnes.  Used  by  permission  of  the  American  Book  Company, 
publishers. 


THE  STUDY  OF  COMPOSITION  5 

8.  The  mastery  of  English  as  a  tool.  Every  person  who  at- 
tains success  either  as  an  artist  or  as  an  artisan  must  first  of  all 
become  the  master  of  his  tools  or  instruments.  He  must  acquire 
such  skill  in  their  use  that  he  can  do  with  them  exactly  what  he 
desires  to  do.  Every  user  of  the  English  language  who  attains 
success  as  a  speaker  or  a  writer  must  first  of  all  become  the 
master  of  his  language,  the  tool  or  instrument  of  communica- 
tion. He  must  acquire  such  skill  in  its  use  that  he  can  say 
accurately  and  effectively  what  he  desires  to  say. 

If  we  allow  our  present  inability  to  speak  and  write  well  to 
discourage  us  so  that  we  make  no  effort  to  master  our  language, 
we  shall  condemn  ourselves  to  a  life  of  commonplaceness  and 
inefficiency.  Similarly,  if  we  envy  successful  speakers  and  writ- 
ers their  mastery  of  P^nglish  but  content  ourselves  merely  with 
dreaming  of  the  time  when  we  too,  through  some  magical  gift, 
shall  possess  an  equal  mastery,  we  shall  never  realize  our  dream, 
^lastery  of  English  does  not  come  in  that  way.  It  must  be  won 
through  persistent,  well-directed  effort. 

In  our  efforts  to  gain  greater  skill  in  expression  we  have 
many  valuable  aids.  Sympathetic  teachers  and  good  textbooks 
will  furnish  us  guidance.  Association  with  the  best  speakers 
and  writers  will  stimulate  and  inspire  us.  By  improving  our 
speech  we  shall  acquire  accuracy  and  readiness  of  utterance  and 
increase  our  power  over  words.  By  listening  to  good  speakers 
and  by  reading  widely  we  shall  add  to  our  general  information 
as  well  as  to  our  knowledge  of  the  correct  methods  of  speaking 
and  writing.  Through  frequent  systematic  composition  we 
shall  gain  indispensable  practice  in  clear  thinking  and  in  the 
accurate  expression  of  our  thoughts.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  a 
man  who  rose  to  great  political  power  and  literary  eminence 
because  of  his  mastery  of  English,  emphasized  the  impor- 
tance of  reading,  speaking,  and  writing.  "Reading  maketh  a 
full  man,  conference  a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  exact  man." 


6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

9.  Self-cultivation  in  English.  The  mastery  of  English  as  a 
tool  cannot  be  taught ;  it  must  be  learned.  That  is  to  say,  we 
must  acquire  it  through  self-cultivation.  Others  may  advise 
and  encourage  us,  but  they  cannot  give  us  command  of  our 
language.  It  is  our  task,  as  well  as  our  privilege,  to  obtain  it  by 
our  own  endeavor. 

Early  in  our  school  career  we  should  develop  a  real  interest 
and  pride  in  our  speech  and  writing.  We  should  learn  increas- 
ingly to  be  our  own  guides  and  critics.  A  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  composition  and  the  rules  of  grammar  will 
enable  us  to  overcome  the  habits  of  careless  and  incorrect  ex- 
pression into  which  we  have  fallen.  We  should  constantly 
watch  our  everyday  speech  and  should  take  advantage  of  every 
opportunity  that  we  have  for  learning  to  write.  Conversation 
and  the  writing  of  letters  and  school  exercises  afford  us  daily 
practice  in  composition.  In  all  our  efforts  at  self-cultivation  we 
shall  find  the  companionship  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers  a 
most  valuable  stimulus  to  improvement. 

EXERCISES 


Devote  at  least  two  hours  to  becoming  acquainted  with  this 
textbook.  First,  examine  the  table  of  contents.  Notice  the  plan 
of  arrangement  by  parts  and  by  chapters.  Next,  turn  slowly 
through  the  book,  pausing  to  study  the  pictures  and  to  read  where- 
ever  you  become  interested.  Try  to  get  a  general  idea  of  what  each 
chapter  contains.  Notice  particularly  the  chapters  dealing  with 
sentence  structure,  grammar,  words,  spelling,  and  punctuation. 
These  you  will  find  valuable  for  close  study  as  well  as  for  frequent 
reference.  Though  you  will  be  assigned  particular  topics  and  sec- 
tions as  your  teacher  may  see  fit,  remember  that  the  entire  book  is 
yours,  to  be  used  as  you  need  it.  Begin  self-cultivation  in  English 
at  once.  Try  to  discover  for  yourself  the  means  for  improving  your 
speech  and  your  writing. 


THE  STUDY  OF  COMPOSITIUX  7 

II 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  answer  the  following  questions:  Do 
you  find  the  pictures  in  this  book  interesting?  Which  do  you  con- 
sider most  interesting?  Why?  Which  chapters  do  you  think  will 
be  of  most  value  to  you  in  your  stud}-  of  composition?    Why  ? 

Ill 

Read  carefully  George  Herbert  Palmer's  "Self-Cultivation  in 
English"  (Riverside  Literature  Series,  No.  249).  Come  to  class 
prepared  to  discuss  the  five  precepts  that  the  author  gives  and  to 
answer  any  other  questions  that  your  teacher  may  ask  you  about 
the  essay. 


CHAPTER  II 
ORAL  COMPOSITION  1 

10.  Importance  of  oral  composition.  If  we  desire  to  speak 
and  write  well,  we  should  watch  our  everyday  conversation.  In 
this  most  of  us  are  careless.  We  are  content  to  express  or  sug- 
gest a  fraction  of  a  thought,  and  then,  with  the  pitiable  ac- 
knowledgment of  our  laziness  ''Oh,  you  know  what  I  mean," 
we  leave  our  friends  to  guess  the  rest.  The  result  is  that  when 
occasions  arise  on  which  we  wish  to  express  ourselves  well,  we 
often  fail  to  make  ourselves  understood  or  to  get  what  we  want, 
because  we  cannot  say  what  we  mean.  We  make  a  personal  or 
written  application  for  a  desirable  position,  but  fail  to  secure 
it  for  the  reason  that  we  are  unable  to  set  forth  our  qualifica- 
tions adequately.  We  misdirect  a  friend  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, not  because  we  do  not  know  the  way  but  because  we 
cannot  express  ourselves  accurately.  We  may  often  make  an 
unsatisfactory  recitation  in  history,  science,  mathematics,  or 
literature,  not  because  we  have  failed  to  prepare  the  assign- 
ment but  frequently  because  we  cannot  state  clearly  and  in 
order  what  we  have  learned.  Only  by  daily  practice  in  speak- 
ing correctly  can  we  make  the  expression  of  our  thoughts  ac- 
curate and  clear.  In  this  endeavor  we  should  enlist  the  aid  of 
our  family  and  friends.  Perhaps  we  may  be  able  to  help  them 
in  return. 

11.  General  directions  for  practice  in  oral  composition.  Oral 
composition  includes  both  informal  and  formal  expression. 

lAt  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  certain  parts  of  this  chapter  may  be  taken 
up  in  later  assignments. 

8 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  9 

Almost  all  conversation  is  informal  and  spontaneous  utterance 
which  reveals  the  personality  of  the  speaker.  In  familiar  con- 
versation we  make  free  use  of  incomplete  sentences,  and  of 
colloquial  expressions  such  as  /'//,  you're,  can't,  and  don't, 
which  are  not  permissible  in  formal  composition,  either  oral  or 
written.  But  the  informality  of  conversation  does  not  warrant 
our  making  mistakes  in  grammar  or  in  the  choice  of  words,  or 
otherwise  violating  good  form  in  speaking.  We  should  there- 
fore, first  of  all,  concentrate  our  attention  upon  the  definite 
improvement  of  our  everyday  speech.  Correct  speech,  we  should 
bear  in  mind,  lays  the  foundation  for  good  writing. 

Outside  of  your  home  you  cannot  find  a  better  place  to  prac- 
tice oral  composition  than  the  classroom  and  the  school  audi- 
torium ;  nor  shall  you  ever  have  a  better  audience  than  your 
classmates.  Make  every  recitation  in  each  subject,  and  every 
opportunity  that  you  have  of  speaking  before  your  classmates, 
an  occasion  for  improvement. 

When  you  talk,  you  should  stand  in  the  front  of  the  room, 
facing  the  class.  Remember  that  the  effectiveness  of  what 
you  have  to  say  will  depend  in  large  part  on  your  manner 
and  bearing  while  you  say  it.  You  should  therefore  stand 
erect,  hold  your  head  up,  and  speak  directly  to  your  audience, 
instead  of  looking  at  the  floor  or  out  of  the  window.  You 
should,  furthermore,  try  to  speak  slowly,  distinctly,  and  pleas- 
antly, avoiding  the  quick,  jerky  speech  which  no  one  enjoys 
hearing.  If  necessary,  you  may  refer  occasionally  to  your  brief 
outline,  which  you  will  find  useful  in  helping  you  to  select  and 
arrange  your  material  properly;  but  you  should  not,  while 
speaking,  depend  on  it  too  much.  After  you  have  taken  your 
seat,  the  teacher  and  your  classmates  may  offer  criticisms  on 
your  talk.  Suggestive  questions  for  your  guidance  in  prepar- 
ing and  criticizing  these  talks  will  be  found  with  each  general 
exercise. 


10  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

12.  The  first  necessary  quality  :  knowledge  of  the  subject.  In 
the  preparation  of  an  oral  composition  our  first  concern  should 
be  the  selection  of  a  topic,  or  subject,  that  we  fully  understand 
and  that  we  are  capable  of  presenting  interestingly  to  others  in 
the  time  that  we  are  given.  Topics  of  this  character  we  shall 
be  able  to  secure  from  such  sources  as  the  following: 

1.  Occupations,  interests,  and  amusements  of  our  family, 

2.  Subjects  studied  in  school. 

3.  School  athletics  and  contests  of  various  kinds. 

4.  Economic  and  social  life  of  our  town  or  community. 

5.  Nature  and  outdoor  life  about  us. 

6.  Personal  experience  and  observation. 

7.  Individual  interests,  ambitions,  and  hobbies. 

8.  Conversation  and  public  lectures. 

9.  General  reading. 

10.  Science  and  invention. 

Suppose  that  we  have  the  following  list  of  topics  from  which 
to  select  a  subject  for  a  short  talk  before  the  class: 

1.  The  Radio  Telephone. 

2.  Costume  Designing. 

3.  Baseball. 

4.  Motion  Pictures. 

5.  Pure  Food. 

The  question  that  confronts  us  immediately  is.  Which  subject 
shall  I  choose? 

This  question  we  may  best  decide  by  answering  the  follow- 
ing questions,  which  should  guide  us  in  selecting  every  subject 
for  either  oral  or  written  compositions : 

1.  With  which  subject  am  I  most  familiar? 

2.  Is  the  subject  that  I  am  considering  properly  limited  to  fit 
my  information,  my  ability,  and  the  time  allowed  me? 

3.  Can  I  make  this  subject  clear  and  interesting  to  others? 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  ii 

As  we  look  over  the  topics  given  above  we  may  discover  that 
we  know  something  about  each  of  them,  but  not  enough  about 
any  one  of  them  to  deal  with  it  satisfactorily  in  its  present 
general  form.  From  each  of  these,  however,  we  may  derive  sev- 
eral limited  subjects  better  suited  to  our  present  ability. 

1.  How  to  Install  an  Amateur  Radio  Telephone. 

2.  An  Interesting  Radio  Concert. 

3.  How  Father  Uses  the  Radio  Telephone  in  his  Business. 

4.  Why  I  Wish  to  Be  a  Costume  Designer. 

5.  How  I  Made  my  Last  Party  Dress. 

6.  How  I  Remodeled  my  Suit. 

7.  The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Pitcher. 

8.  How  to  Throw  Curves. 

9.  The  Power  of  an  Umpire. 

10.  The  Use  of  Motion  Pictures  in  the  Study  of  Geography. 

11.  The  Physiology  of  Motion  Pictures. 

12.  The  Animated  Newspaper. 

13.  The  Importance  of  Milk  Inspection. 

14.  How  to  Pasteurize  Milk. 

15.  How  to  Distinguish  Fresh  from  Stale  Eggs. 

The  short  compositions  printed  below  illustrate  how  such 
limited  subjects  as  these  may  be  dealt  with  in  brief  talks. 

HOW  TO  THROW  CURVES 

In  throwing  the  outcurve  the  pitcher  usually  grasps  the  ball 
with  the  first  two  fingers  and  the  thumb.  The  third  finger  is  some- 
times used  to  steady  the  ball.  The  hand  is  turned  downward, 
and  the  ball  is  allowed  to  pass  between  the  thumb  and  the  first 
finger.  This  imparts  a  rotary  motion  which  causes  the  curve.  The 
arm  must  be  swung  around  the  side  of  the  body,  a  movement 
which  is  known  as  the  side,  or  underhand,  delivery.  If  the  arm 
is  swung  over  the  body  at  about  halfway  between  horizontal  and 
vertical,  the  result  will  be  an  outdrop.  If  the  arm  is  swung  directly 
over  the  body,  the  result  will  be  a  drop.  In  throwing  the  incurve 
the  pitcher  grasps  the  ball  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  in  throw- 


12  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ing  the  outcurve,  but  the  ball  is  allowed  to  roll  off  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  instead  of  passing  between  the  thumb  and  the  first  finger. 
The  incurve  may  be  thrown  either  with  the  side  delivery  or  with 
the  overhand  delivery.  A  "spit  ball"  is  a  ball  moistened  on  one 
side  with  saliva.  It  is  thrown  by  gripping  the  ball  and  swinging  the 
arm  in  the  same  manner  as  would  be  used  for  any  of  the  curves  just 
explained.  Because  of  the  moistened  side  the  ball  moves  with 
greater  speed,  and  the  resulting  curve  is  more  uncertain. 

INTERRELATIONSHIP  OF  LIVING  THINGS  IN  THE  SOIL 

The  different  things  living  in  the  soil  may  prey  upon  one  an- 
other quite  as  do  things  that  live  aboveground.  The  soil  is  often 
filled  with  a  dense  population  of  living  things,  some  feeding  upon 
mineral  matter  in  the  soil,  some  upon  dead  organic  matter,  some 
upon  other  living  things. 

An  instructive  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  these  inter- 
relations may  go  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  roots  of  the  corn  plant 
and  certain  animals  that  may  often  be  found  upon  or  near  these 
roots.  Extremely  small  insects,  known  as  plant  lice  or  aphides, 
bite  into  the  tender  roots  of  the  corn  and  suck  out  the  nourishing 
juices.  The  aphides  are  almost  stationary  animals  and  cannot 
ordinarily  make  their  way  from  one  plant  to  another  without  as- 
sistance. When  well  nourished  they  excrete  small  drops  of  a 
glistening,  sweetish  solution  sometimes  called  honeydew.  This 
honeydew  is  an  article  of  food  for  certain  black  ants  which  also 
live  in  the  cornfields.  It  has  been  found  that  the  ants  will  dig 
furrows  at  the  side  of  the  corn  plants  until  they  can  reach 
the  roots,  and  will  then  carry  the  aphides  and  place  them  upon 
younger  and  more  tender  roots.  When  food  for  the  aphides  be- 
comes scanty,  they  are  moved  to  new  plants.  The  aphides  thus 
secure  abundant  food,  and  the  ants  secure  the  honeydew  as  their 
own  food.  Both  are  parasites  upon  corn,  one  directly,  the  other 
indirectly.  Corn  and  grasses  are  often  killed  by  these  animals, 
and  the  soil,  rendered  porous  by  the  burrows,  dries  more  rapidly 
than  it  otherwise  would.  This  is  but  one  of  many  illustrations  of 
the  interrelationship  of  animals  and  plants  in  the  soil. — Caldwell 
and  EiKENBEERY,  "Elements  of  General  Science" 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  13 

HOW  THE  MOSQUITO  CARRIES  MALARIA 

When  a  mosquito  of  a  certain  kind  feeds  upon  human  blood,  it 
injects  a  small  amount  of  salivary  fluid  into  the  wound  that  it  has 
made.  If  the  person  has  malaria,  the  mosquito  secures  blood 
which  may  carry  malarial  germs;  and  if  these  germs  are  present, 
they  multiply  rapidly  within  the  mosquito,  really  living  in  a  way 
quite  different  from  their  life  in  the  human  blood.  Some  of  the 
germs  get  into  the  mosquito's  salivary  glands.  When  the  infected 
mosquito  bites  a  second  human  being,  germs  may  be  injected  into 
the  wound  with  the  salivary  fluid.  These  may  produce  the  disease 
in  the  person  thus  infected. — Caldwell  and  Eikenberry,  "Ele- 
ments of  General  Science  " 

EXERCISES 

I 

In  a  short  talk  before  the  class,  discuss  one  of  the  limited  subjects 
in  the  list  on  page  11.  Select  your  subject  by  means  of  the  three 
questions  suggested  on  page  10.  Plan  your  talk  carefully.  Make 
brief  notes  to  aid  you,  but  do  not  write  out  what  you  intend  to  say. 

II 

Limit  the  following  subjects : 

1.  School  Games.  4.  Insects.  7.  Domestic  Science. 

2.  Vacation  Trips.  5.  Amusements.  8.  Manual  Training. 

3.  Training  Animals.  6.  Photography.  9.  The  Red  Cross. 

HI 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  discuss  orally  three  of  the  subjects 
that  you  limited  in  Exercise  II. 

IV 
Tell  the  class  a  good  joke  that  you  have  recently  heard. 


Relate  to  the  class  a  humorous  anecdote  that  you  have  lately 
beard  or  read. 


14  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

13.  The  second  necessary  quality  :  clearness  of  thought.  Our 

success  in  speaking  depends  largely  on  the  clearness  of  our 
thinking.  If  we  are  inexperienced,  we  are  likely  to  fail,  for 
one  or  more  of  five  reasons,  to  make  ourselves  clear:  (i)  we 
do  not  give  our  audience  a  clear,  concise  statement  at  the  be- 
ginning as  to  what  our  talk  is  to  be  about;  (2)  we  fail  to 
follow  a  natural  or  logical  order  in  taking  up  the  details  or 
incidents  of  our  talk;  (3)  we  use  too  many  vague,  general 
terms  instead  of  specific  words;  (4)  we  wander  from  the  sub- 
ject and  bring  in  unimportant,  if  not  irrelevant,  details;  and 
(5)  we  omit  entirely  some  important  details.  What  happens 
when  we  commit  one  or  more  of  these  errors  is  illustrated  by 
the  examples  given  below  in  Exercises  I  and  II. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Read  the  following  examples  aloud.  Then  answer  these  ques- 
tions based  on  them :  ( i )  How  many  of  the  five  errors  given  above 
are  responsible  for  the  lack  of  clearness  in  the  first  paragraph? 
( 2 )  What  particular  expressions  are  confusing  ?  Why  ?  (3 )  What 
particular  expressions  make  the  second  paragraph  clear  ?  (4)  What 
definite  changes  can  you  suggest  in  the  first  paragraph  to  make  it 
as  clear  as  the  second  ? 

HOW  TO  REACH  MY  HOME  FROM  THE  STATION 

1.  I  live  about  five  or  six  blocks  from  the  station.  To  get  to  my  home 
you  go  down  the  street  until  you  come  to  a  street  that  goes  over  a  bridge. 
This  bridge  was  rebuilt  a  few  years  ago  to  take  the  place  of  an  old  wooden 
one  that  used  to  be  there.  This  one  is  of  concrete.  My  grandfather 
helped  build  the  first  bridge.  Then  go  along  the  right  side  of  the  street 
till  you  come  to  a  street  with  an  old  brick  house  on  the  comer.  I  live 
just  about  halfway  up  the  block  from  the  comer.  The  house  has  just 
been  painted. 

2.  I  live  six  blocks  from  the  station.  When  you  come  out  of  the  front 
door  of  the  station,  you  will  find  yourself  on  Main  Street.  Walk  up  Main 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  15 

Street  one  block  to  Magnolia  Avenue.  Here  turn  to  your  right  and  walk 
three  blocks  to  a  cross  street  marked  "Sycamore."  Then  turn  to  your 
left  on  Sycamore  Street  and  walk  two  blocks  to  the  corner  of  Linden 
Avenue.  The  second  house  from  this  corner,  on  the  right  side  of  Linden 
Avenue,  is  my  home. 

11 

For  which  of  the  reasons  given  above  does  the  following  answer 
of  Mrs.  Brown's  lack  clearness  ?  What  changes  would  you  make  in 
the  order?  How  much  of  Mrs.  Brown's  reply  is  necessary  to  an- 
swer the  lawyer's  question  ? 

Lawyer.    Are  you  sure  that  the  house  was  robbed  on  Wednesday? 

Mrs.  Brown.  Yes,  sir,  I"d  just  stepped  over  to  Mrs.  Davis's  a  minute 
to  borrow  a  bit  of  yeast  for  my  baking.  Her  husband  won't  eat  a  bite  0' 
bread  that's  baked  with  store  yeast.  You  know,  all  the  Davises  are 
queer.  His  father  was  the  one  who  wouldn't  ever  paint  his  house,  though 
I'm  not  sure  but  that  he  was  right,  for  an  old  building  like  his  was  hardly 
worth  painting.  Our  woodshed  is  just  about  as  bad  as  his  house,  if  you 
come  right  down  to  it.  Well,  before  I  started  baking  I  went  into  the  shed 
to  get  Mr.  Brown's  old  coat;  he  is  always  so  absent-minded,  leaving  his 
things  around  everywhere.  I  'most  always  bake  bread  on  a  Wednesday, 
you  know.    Yes,  I'm  sure  it  was  Wednesday. 

Ill 

Comie  to  class  prepared  to  give  some  of  the  following  directions. 
Do  not  write  them  out,  but  think  over  carefully  what  you  will  say. 
Try  to  avoid  making  any  of  the  mistakes  mentioned  above. 

1.  Direct  a  friend  from  your  school  to  your  home. 

2.  Direct  a  stranger  from  your  school  to  the  railroad  station. 

3.  Direct  a  visitor  to  the  principal's  office. 

4.  Tell  your  chum  how  to  find  your  baseball  glove. 

5.  Direct  a  friend  to  a  certain  picture  in  an  art  gallery. 

IV 

Explain  orally  how  some  simple  game  is  played. 

V 
Tell  the  class  how  to  train  some  pet  animal  to  perform  a  trick. 


i6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

14.  The  value  of  an  outline  in  planning  a  composition.   In 

our  efforts  to  think  clearly  and  to  present  our  subject  to  our 
audience  or  readers  in  an  orderly  manner,  we  shall  find  that 
the  first  step  in  the  proper  arrangement  of  our  material  con- 
sists in  the  making  of  an  outline.  The  plan  of  the  short  talks 
that  we  have  given  thus  far  we  have  been  able  to  carry  in  our 
minds.  For  our  longer  oral  and  written  compositions,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  write  out  our  plan  in  the 
form  of  a  brief  outline. 

If  we  have  chosen  a  familiar  subject  and  have  limited  it 
properly,  we  should  have  little  difficulty  in  choosing  the  neces- 
sary material  and  in  discovering  a  natural  or  logical  order  of 
grouping  the  details.  Since  every  composition  should  be  a 
complete  treatment  of  the  subject  selected,  we  should  use  care 
in  choosing  the  points  at  which  to  begin  and  end.  Few,  if  any, 
of  our  compositions  will  require  a  formal  introductory  para- 
graph. Usually  a  sentence  or  two  stating  what  our  talk  is  to 
be  about  will  furnish  sufficient  introduction.  Likewise,  we  shall 
rarely  need  a  formal  concluding  paragraph,  though  a  sentence 
or  two  rounding  out  and  completing  our  talk  is  often  felt  to 
be  necessary. 

The  three  rules  that  follow  will  guide  us  in  planning  our 
compositions : 

1.  Select  only  material  that  belongs  to  the  subject,  but  do 
not  omit  anything  that  is  important. 

2.  Arrange  this  material  according  to  its  proper  time,  space, 
or  logical  relationship,  so  that  your  composition  will  be  clear. 

3.  Begin  directly,  but  naturally  and  clearly,  and  stop  as 
soon  as  you  have  presented  your  subject. 

The  simple  outlines  printed  below  will  furnish  us  models  in 
preparing  plans  for  our  oral  compositions.  Notice  that  each 
numbered  topic  is  a  division  of  the  subject  stated  in  the  title. 
Study  these  outlines  closely,  to  discover  the  principle  govern- 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  17 

ing  the  arrangement  of  the  material.    You  may  refer  to  these 
outlines  frequently  in  planning  your  own  compositions. 

AN  UNUSUAL  PET 

1.  How  I  acquired  him. 

a.  Place. 

b.  Time. 

c.  Circumstances. 

2.  His  intelligence. 

3.  His  unusual  habits. 

4.  His  one  bad  habit. 

5.  Tricks  I  have  taught  him. 

6.  His  devotion  to  me. 

7.  His  place  in  our  family. 

GETTING  A  VACATION  JOB 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  My  desire  to  earn  some  money. 

b.  My  friend's  advice. 

c.  Father's  advice. 

2.  My  letters  of  application. 

a.  Favorable  replies. 

b.  Unfavorable  replies. 

3.  My  personal  applications. 

a.  Reasons  for  my  failure  at  first 

b.  Improvement  of  my  method. 

4.  Securing  the  job. 

5.  The  value  of  the  experience  to  me. 

A  FRIEND  OF  MINE 

1.  Circumstances  of  our  first  meeting. 

2.  Her  personal  appearance. 

3.  Her  interesting  habits. 

4.  Her  quaint  personality. 

5.  Qualities  that  endear  her  to  others. 

6.  The  quality  I  most  admire  in  her. 

7.  What  her  friendship  means  to  me. 


1 8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

HOW  OUR  SCHOOL  RAISED  MONEY  FOR  OUR 
FRENCH  ORPHAN 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  The  school  rally. 

b.  The  committee's  plan. 

2.  Domestic-science  bazaar. 

3.  Tag  day. 

4.  Box  supper. 

5.  School  play. 

6.  Success  of  the  plan. 

MAN'S  THREESCORE  AND  TEN  YEARS 

1.  From  whom  I  heard  the  fable. 

2.  All  animals  summoned  before  Nature's  throne. 

3.  Nature's  gift  to  the  donkey. 

a.  The  donkey's  sorrow  and  plea. 

b.  Nature's  concession. 

4.  Nature's  gift  to  the  dog. 

a.  The  dog's  sorrow  and  plea. 

b.  Nature's  concession. 

5.  Nature's  gift  to  the  ape. 

a.  The  ape's  sorrow  and  plea. 

b.  Nature's  concession. 

6.  Nature's  gift  to  man. 

a.  Man's  sorrow  and  plea. 

b.  Nature's  concession. 

7.  The  effect  of  man's  added  years. 

8.  The  result  of  man's  greed. 

The  simple  outlines  that  we  have  constructed  will  greatly  aid 
us  in  making  our  subjects  clear  and  interesting  to  others.  When 
we  have  devised  a  satisfactory  plan,  more  than  half  of  our 
preparation  has  been  completed.  The  student  who  made  the 
last  outline  given  above  found  little  difficulty  in  retelling  the 
following  fable : 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  19 

MAN'S  THREESCORE  AND  TEN  YEARS 

My  grandmother  has  often  related  to  me  the  following  story  of 
how  man  received  from  Nature  his  threescore  and  ten  years. 

When  Nature  had  finished  her  task  of  creating  the  earth  and  all 
living  things,  she  summoned  her  creatures  before  her  throne  to 
assign  to  each  his  period  of  life.  They  made  a  motley  array  as  they 
appeared  before  her  to  receive  whatever  she  saw  fit  to  bestow. 

First  came  the  donkey.  ^'Well,  my  good  friend,"  said  Nature, 
''will  twenty  years  of  existence  satisfy  thee?" 

"O  mother,  be  kind!"  pleaded  the  donkey.  "Think  of  my 
sorrows !  Men  will  abuse  me.  When  I  am  old,  I  shall  do  nothing 
but  hard  work.  Men  will  use  me  for  their  own  selfish  advantage, 
caring  nothing  for  my  sufferings.  Dear  Nature,  do  not  make  me 
live  twenty  years." 

Moved  by  the  donkey's  plea.  Nature  allotted  him  but  ten  years 
in  which  to  drag  out  his  weary  life  on  earth. 

"And  you,  friend,"  asked  Nature,  as  the  dog  appeared  before  her 
throne,  "will  you  too  be  dissatisfied  with  twenty  years  of  life?" 

"How  can  I  live  so  long!"  answered  the  dog,  in  tears.  "What 
pleasure  will  life  hold  for  me?  As  I  slowly  but  inevitably  grow 
old  and  useless,  my  former  friends  will  forget  me.  My  toothless 
mouth  will  no  longer  be  able  to  grant  me  the  enjoyment  afforded  by 
tempting  morsels  of  meat.  What  shall  I  do  but  sit  alone  in  a  corner 
and  growl  and  sleep  my  life  away  ?  " 

Again  Nature  heard  the  plea  and  cut  her  gift  in  half.  Neverthe- 
less, the  dog  turned  away  discontent  with  having  only  ten  years 
subtracted  from  his  allotted  life. 

Next  in  line  came  the  ape.  "Surely  you  will  want  twenty-five 
years,"  said  Nature,  "for  what  labor  shall  you  have  but  sporting 
in  the  woods  ?  " 

But,  to  her  surprise,  the  ape  too  began  to  weep.  "Have  you  no 
pity  ?"  he  wailed.  "You  have  made  me  a  figure  for  men  to  scoff  at. 
Must  I  sit  in  a  cage  all  those  years  to  gibber  and  grin  for  men  to 
jeer  at  me  and  mock  me  ?   Nature,  have  pity  on  me ! " 

Again  Nature  yielded,  though  somewhat  reluctantly,  and  took 
off  fifteen  years  from  the  ape's  original  portion. 


20  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Last  of  all  came  man.  Nature,  wishing  to  have  at  least  one  long- 
lived  creature,  offered  him  thirty-five  years.  Again  her  offer  was 
met  with  tears,  but  this  time  for  a  different  reason. 

"Alas,"  sighed  man,  "only  thirty-five  years!  Why,  within  that 
brief  period  I  shall  have  just  made  something  to  keep  me  com- 
fortable. I  shall  have  a  home,  a  wife,  and  children.  Just  when  I 
am  about  to  enter  upon  the  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  my  labors, 
must  I  die  ?  " 

Moved  once  more  to  kindness.  Nature  gave  man  the  ten  years 
rejected  by  the  donkey,  but  man  was  not  satisfied.  Then  she  gave 
him  the  ten  years  spurned  by  the  dog.  Again  man  cried  out  at  her 
injustice  to  him.  At  last,  to  appease  him,  she  bestowed  on  him  the 
fifteen  years  left  by  the  ape.  No  more  would  she  give.  Grumbling 
even  then,  man  turned  away  and  left  Nature's  presence. 

Thus  it  is  that  man  lives  thirty-five  years  happily  and  success- 
fully. Then  follow  the  years  of  the  donkey,  when  man  is  driven  by 
all  till  he  is  useless.  These  years  are  followed,  in  turn,  by  those  of 
the  dog,  wherein  man  must  sit  toothless,  friendless,  and  alone  in  a 
corner  with  nothing  to  do  but  complain  and  growl.  Finally  there 
come  the  fifteen  years  of  the  ape,  which  complete  the  threescore 
and  ten.  During  these  years  man  loses  the  respect  and  considera- 
tion of  all  his  former  associates.  No  one  will  listen  to  him.  Mock- 
ery is  his  share.  But  as  his  years  of  wretchedness  draw  to  a  close, 
he  actually  complains  because  death  and  the  grave  are  so  soon  to 
put  an  end  to  his  misery. 

Greediness  and  the  fear  of  death  have  earned  for  man  his  own 
just  reward. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Study  by  means  of  the  outline  the  fable  you  have  read.  What 
purpose  does  the  opening  sentence  serve  ?  the  closing  sentence  ? 

II 

Prepare  an  oral  composition  on  one  of  the  other  subjects  out- 
lined on  pages  17  and  18.  You  may  modify  the  printed  outline  to 
fit  your  particular  material  if  you  find  any  change  necessary. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  21 


III 


Make  a  brief  outline  of  some  fable  or  folk  tale  that  you  know. 
Come  to  class  prepared  to  relate  the  fable  or  tale  orally. 

IV 

Make  an  outline  for  a  talk  on  one  of  the  following  subjects. 
Select  your  subject  carefully  by  means  of  the  three  questions  men- 
tioned on  page  lo. 

1.  Why  I  Like  Manual  Training. 

2.  Why  I  Like  Domestic  Science. 

3.  How  to  Organize  a  Civics  Club. 

4.  My  Most  Interesting  Experience  Last  Vacation. 

5.  The  Trials  of  a  Freshman. 

6.  My  Home. 

V 

^lake  notes  on  some  lecture  or  discussion  that  you  have  recently 
heard.  Arrange  these  notes  in  the  form  of  a  brief  outline,  and  come 
to  class  prepared  to  give  a  connected  report  of  what  the  speaker 
said. 

VI 

^Make  an  outline  of  the  chief  points  in  a  short  newspaper  article, 
and  come  to  class  prepared  to  retell  it  in  your  own  words. 

VII 

Outline  some  incident  recorded  in  your  history  text,  and  come  to 
class  prepared  to  retell  it  clearly  and  interestingly. 

VIII 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  place  on  the  blackboard  the  outline 
that  you  made  in  Exercise  IV.  As  you  give  your  talk  the  class 
can  see  whether  your  oral  composition  and  your  outline  agree.  The 
following  questions  will  guide  the  class  in  their  criticism  of  your 
composition:  (i)  Did  the  speaker  discuss  his  subject  so  that  you 
thoroughly  understand  its  main  points?    (2)  Was  his  beginning 


2  2  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

clear  and  direct?  (3)  Should  any  topics  have  been  arranged  in 
a  different  order?  (4)  Should  any  topics  have  been  omitted? 
(S)  Were  any  topics  mentioned  in  the  composition  which  are 
not  in  the  outline?  (6)  Was  the  ending  natural  and  satisfac- 
tory? (7)  Did  the  speaker  omit  entirely  any  necessary  points? 
(8)  Did  he  use  and  fail  to  explain  any  words  that  are  not  familiar 
to  you  ? 

15.  The  third  necessary  quality :  clearness  of  speech.  Al- 
though knowledge  of  the  subject  and  clearness  of  thought  are 
essential  to  success  in  oral  composition,  there  are  other  im- 
portant qualities  that  we  must  not  overlook.  However  care- 
fully we  may  have  chosen  our  subject  and  planned  our  talk,  it 
will  not  be  effective  unless  we  deliver  it  well.  If  we  mumble 
our  words,  or  hesitate  in  our  speech  while  groping  for  words, 
we  invariably  lose  the  attention  of  our  audience.  In  delivering 
an  oral  composition,  therefore,  we  should  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  clearness  and  effectiveness  of  our  speech.  The  fol- 
lowing suggestions  will  help  us  in  improving  our  oral  delivery : 

1.  Face  the  class.  Your  audience  can  hear  you  better,  and 
you  have  the  advantage  of  talking  directly  to  it. 

2.  Enunciate  distinctly.  Do  not  slur  certain  words  and 
syllables.    Be  sure  not  to  omit  final  g^s,  fs,  and  d's. 

3.  Pitch  your  voice  naturally,  preferably  low.  A  high,  nasal 
tone  irritates  your  listeners  and  does  not  carry  well.  Talk 
through  your  lips,  not  through  your  teeth.  A  tone  which  comes 
through  half-shut  teeth  is  indistinct  and  lifeless. 

4.  Pronounce  each  word  correctly.  If  necessary,  consult  3^our 
dictionary  for  the  correct  pronunciation  of  each  word  in  regard 
to  which  you  are  in  doubt.  Incorrect  pronunciation  distracts 
the  attention  of  your  audience  from  the  thought  you  are  trying 
to  convey. 

5.  Do  not  memorize  what  you  have  to  say.  A  speaker  who 
does  this  is  apt  to  talk  in  an  expressionless,  mechanical  fash- 


ORAL  COMPOSITION'  23 

ion.  If  he  forgets  the  exact  word  he  has  learned,  he  is  at  a 
loss  for  another.  Be  so  thoroughly  familiar  with  your  subject 
that  words  come  readily ;  but  do  not  memorize. 

EXERCISES 


Pronounce  aloud  the  following  words  distinctly.  Be  sure  that 
each  syllable  receives  its  proper  emphasis. 

Cattle,  bottle,  children,  round,  arctic,  can't,  castle,  difficult,  going 
Mary,  very,  public,  coming,  audience,  gymnasium,  Wednesday,  little,  pro- 
nounce, people,  respect,  battle,  library,  perhaps,  usually,  saw,  chimney, 
sophomore,  beautiful,  absolute,  recognize,  hesitate,  kettle,  Tuesday,  yes- 
terday, what,  liked,  idea,  fact,  anything,  government,  something,  history, 
doing,  laboratory,  soda,  elm,  creek,  larynx,  fire,  salad,  interested,  fore- 
head. Calvary,  cavalry,  February,  surprise,  tomorrow,  candidate,  ath- 
letics, Latin,  grievous,  mischievous,  which,  finally,  sword,  attacked, 
probably, when, while,  program,  geography,  separated,  quantity,  calculate. 

II 

Pronounce  aloud  the  following  pairs  or  groups  of  words  with 
such  clearness  of  enunciation  that  the  class  may  accurately  dis- 
tinguish each  word  by  its  spelling  and  meaning  from  the  other 
word  or  words  with  which  it  is  sometimes  confused  by  careless 
speakers : 

Affect,  effect;  air,  are;  sit,  set;  then,  thin;  real,  reel;  complement, 
compliment;  elusion,  illusion,  allusion;  tell,  till;  sense,  since;  pen,  pin; 
council,  counsel;  cavalry.  Calvary;  ten,  tin;  partner,  pardoner;  poplar, 
popular;  race,  raise;  rise,  rice;  cease,  seize;  device,  devise;  pillow, 
pillar;  picture,  pitcher;  statue,  statute,  stature;  irreverent,  irrelevant; 
err,  ere,  ear;  been,  bean;  white,  wight;  which,  witch;  wear,  were; 
what,  watt. 

Ill 

Find  in  your  dictionary  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  follow- 
ing words.  Pronounce  each  word  aloud  several  times  until  you  are 
sure  of  yourself. 


24  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Abdomen,  acclimated,  address,  applicable,  automobile,  chauffeur, 
clandestine,  compensate,  consummate,  contemplate,  decade,  demonstra- 
tive, dessert,  detail,  elegiac,  envelope,  exquisite,  finance,  formidable, 
horizon,  hospitable,  illustrate,  illustrative,  incomparable,  indisputable, 
inexplicable,  inquiry,  mischievous,  portray,  precedence,  prestige,  recess, 
renaissance,  research,  respite,  restaurant,  romance,  superfluous,  theater, 
vehement. 

IV 

Bring  to  class  a  list  of  words  that  you  have  recently  heard  mis- 
pronounced. 

V 

Make  an  outline  for  an  oral  composition  on  one  of  the  following 
subjects.  Come  prepared  to  place  your  outline  on  the  blackboard 
and  to  discuss  your  subject  before  the  class. 

1.  An  Experiment  in  Science. 

2.  How  to  Print  a  Kodak  Picture. 

3.  How  to  Make  a  Butterfly  Tray. 

4.  How  Coke  is  Made. 

5.  How  to  Fill  a  Silo. 

6.  A  Fashion  that  I  Detest. 

7.  The  Importance  of  Good  Manners. 

8.  An  Incident  in  the  Early  History  of  our  Town. 

9.  An  Ideal  Camping  Place. 

10.  How  I  Earned  my  First  Money. 

16.  The  fourth  necessary  quality  :  correctness  of  speech.  If 
we  would  speak  naturally  and  correctly,  we  should  be  careful  in 
our  conversation.  Since,  during  all  our  life,  we  shall  probably 
talk  more  than  we  shall  write,  it  is  important  that  we  form  the 
habit  of  correct  speech,  not  only  in  all  our  oral  recitations  but 
also  in  our  conversation  at  home,  on  the  street,  and  on  the  play- 
ground. It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  we  can  talk  in  an  un- 
grammatical,  slangy,  or  careless  way  half  the  time  during  our 
school  days  and  then  easily  and  permanently  assume  correct 
speech  when  we  grow  up. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  25 

Although  slanp;  is  often  more  vivid  at  the  time  it  is  uttered 
than  accepted  language,  it  is  to  be  avoided,  because  it  is  seldom 
permanent  or  universal.  The  slang  used  by  the  English  people 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  time  is  in  many  instances  without  mean- 
ing to  the  Englishman  of  today.  Even  much  modern  slang 
which  is  clear,  let  us  say,  to  a  person  living  in  New  York  con- 
veys little  or  no  meaning  to  a  resident  of  Wyoming,  Oregon,  or 
Alabama.  A  still  stronger  argument  against  slang  is  that  those 
who  use  it  are  not  likely  to  learn  good  English  words  with 
which  to  express  their  ideas.  Such  people  can  talk  only  with 
those  who  understand  slang ;  when  they  go  among  others  they 
must  be  silent,  for  they  are  at  a  loss  how  to  express  themselves. 
In  giving  an  oral  composition,  then,  we  should  never  allow  our- 
selves to  make  use  of  any  slang  term,  but  we  should  find  its 
equivalent  in  good  English. 


EXERCISES 


The  following  sentences  contain  errors  frequently  heard  in  the 
conversation  of  careless  or  illiterate  persons.  Read  the  sentences 
aloud,  point  out  and  explain  the  errors,  and  correct  the  sentences. 

(In  Chapters  XI  and  XII  you  will  find  these  and  many  similar 
errors  discussed.) 

1.  Just  between  you  and  I,  it  don't  seem  right. 

2.  Who  did  you  give  the  book  to? 

3.  She  slept  good  last  night  and  is  some  better  this  morning. 

4.  The  prof  flunked  me  on  the  final  exam. 

5.  That  picture  don't  flatter  you  none,  does  it? 

6.  If  I  was  you,  I  would  lay  down  and  get  some  rest. 

7.  I  love  to  set  by  the  fire  and  read  on  these  kind  of  days. 

8.  We  just  had  a  hunch  that  they  would  come  real  late. 

9.  I  like  her  best  of  the  twins. 
10.  I  can't  seem  to  learn  geometry. 


2  6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Organize  your  class  into  a  permanent  "Better-Speech  Club." 
Select  each  week  a  committee  of  three  students,  to  whom  the  other 
members  of  the  class  may  hand  in,  on  slips  of  paper,  errors  heard 
in  the  classroom,  on  the  playground,  on  the  street,  or  elsewhere. 
No  names  need  be  mentioned.  At  a  class  period  once  each  week 
these  errors  may  be  read  by  members  of  the  committee,  and  others 
in  the  class  may  be  called  on  to  explain  the  errors  and  correct  them. 

Ill 

Prepare  by  means  of  an  outline  an  oral  composition  on  one  of  the 
following  subjects  or  on  a  subject  suggested  by  your  teacher.  Be 
sure  your  plan  is  clear,  your  delivery  good,  and  your  speech  correct, 

1.  The  Protection  of  Bird  Friends. 

2.  A  Defense  of  the  Motion-Picture  Show. 

3.  The  School  Building  as  a  Social  Center. 

4.  The  Influence  of  the  Automobile  on  my  Community. 

5.  My  Favorite  Winter  Sport. 

6.  A  Plan  for  Improving  my  Use  of  English. 

7.  Why  I  Desire  to  Go  to  College. 

8.  A  Humorous  Experience  with  the  Telephone. 

9.  An  Amusing  Mistake  and  its  Result. 
10.  My  First  Experience  Selling  Papers. 

The  following  questions  will  guide  the  class  in  their  criticism  of 
your  composition :  ( i )  Could  you  follow  the  main  points  that  the 
speaker  endeavored  to  discuss?  (2)  If  not,  what  point  was  ob- 
scure? Why?  (3)  Was  any  topic  introduced  which  did  not  relate 
to  the  subject?  (4)  Was  any  important  topic  omitted?  (5)  Was 
the  speaker's  delivery  effective?  (6)  Where  did  the  speaker  fail 
through  lack  of  earnestness  to  be  effective?  (7)  What  words  were 
pronounced  poorly  or  incorrectly?    (8)  Was  and  used  too  often? 

17.  The  fifth  necessary  quality :  vividness  of  speech.  Even 
though  we  speak  clearly  and  correctly,  we  may  fail  to  interest 
our  hearers  because  we  do  not  express  ourselves  vividly.  Vivid- 


^.-^^r-i->  >-.>?>^'w' 


EOBINSON   CRUSOE  OPENS   THE   CHEST 


OR.AL  COMPOSITION  27 

ness  of  speech  is  p;ai*ned  by  choosing  specific  words  instead  of 
general  terms  and  by  carefully  selecting  details  that  make  a 
clear  picture  or  result  in  an  accurate  explanation. 

Read  the  example  given  below.  The  italicized  specific  words 
are  those  in  the  original  passage.  Reread  the  passage,  substi- 
tuting the  words  in  parentheses  (which  are  general  terms  care- 
lessly used  by  everybody),  and  notice  the  loss  in  vividness. 

At  the  same  moment,  another  pirate  grasped  (took)  Hunter's  musket 
by  the  muzzle,  •wrenched  (took)  it  from  his  hands,  plucked  (pulled)  it 
through  the  loophole,  and,  with  one  stunning  (hard)  blow,  laid  the  poor 
fellow  senseless  on  the  floor.  Meanwhile  a  third,  running  unharmed  all 
round  the  house,  appeared  suddenly  in  the  doorway,  and  jell  with  his 
cutlass  on  (attacked)  the  doctor.  .  .  . 

I  snatched  (took)  a  cutlass  from  the  pile,  and  someone,  at  the  same 
time  snatching  (taking)  another, gave  me  a  cut  across  the  knuckles  (on  the 
hand)  which  I  hardly  felt.  I  dashed  (went)  out  of  the  door  into  the  clear 
sunlight  (air).  Someone  was  close  behind,  I  knew  not  whom.  Right  in 
front,  the  doctor  was  pursuing  his  assailant  down  the  hill,  and,  just  as  my 
eyes  fell  upon  him,  beat  down  his  guard  (attacked),  and  sent  him  sprawl- 
ing (flat)  on  his  back,  with  a  great  slash  (cut)  across  the  face.  .  .  . 

Mechanically  I  obeyed,  turned  eastwards,  and,  with  my  cutlass  raised, 
ran  round  the  comer  of  the  house.  Next  moment  I  was  face  to  face 
with  (opposite)  Anderson.  He  roared  (cried)  aloud,  and  his  hanger 
(sword)  went  up  above  his  head,  flashing  in  the  sunlight.  I  had  not 
time  to  be  afraid,  but,  as  the  blow  still  hung  impending  (before  the  blow 
fell),  leaped  m  a  trice  (quickly)  upon  one  side,  and  missing  my  foot  in 
the  soft  sand,  rolled  headlong  (fell)  down  the  slope. —  Stevenson, 
"Treasure  Island"^ 

EXERCISE 

Prepare  a  talk  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  or  on  a  subject  of 
your  own  selection.  Choose  details  that  will  make  your  talk  vivid. 
Make  the  class  see  and  feel  what  you  formerly  experienced. 

1.  A  Spectacular  Play. 

2.  The  Bravest  Deed  I  Ever  Witnessed. 

3.  My  Worst  Scare. 

^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


28  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  An  Exciting  Ride. 

5.  The  Last  Five  Minutes  of  the  Game. 

6.  Our  Burglar. 

7.  A  Humorous  Blunder. 

8.  My  First  Experience  with  an  ''Automat"  Lunch. 

9.  My  First  Experience  as  an  Actor. 
10.  Alone  in  the  House. 

The  following  questions  will  guide  the  class  in  their  criticism  oi 
your  composition:  (i)  Did  the  speaker  succeed  in  his  attempt  to 
make  you  see  the  picture  or  feel  the  excitement  of  what  he  was  tell- 
ing? (2)  What  nouns,  adjectives,  or  verbs  can  you  mention  that 
were  particularly  good?  (3)  Explain  why  one  of  these  words  was 
unusually  clear.    (4)  Where  can  you  suggest  better  words? 

18.  Two  devices  for  keeping  attention.  Even  though  we  plan 
carefully  what  we  have  to  say  and  say  it  well,  our  talk  may  not 
be  entirely  successful  unless  we  use  some  device  to  render  it 
effective,  to  make  our  audience  see  the  thing  we  are  talking 
about.  One  helpful  means  is  the  use  of  objects,  or  small  models 
of  them,  to  illustrate  our  talk. 

EXERCISE 

Bring  to  class  an  object  or  a  model  to  illustrate  a  talk  which  you 
will  prepare  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  or  on  a  subject  of 
your  own  choice : 

1.  The  Distinction  between  a  Mushroom  and  a  Toadstool. 

2.  The  Root  System  of  a  Plant. 

3.  The  Mechanics  of  an  Electric  Bell. 

4.  How  a  Camera  Works. 

5.  How  to  Group  Objects  for  a  Still-Life  Picture. 

6.  The  Law  of  the  Lever. 

7.  How  to  Select  Seed  Corn. 

8.  A  Hornet's  Nest. 

9.  Something  you  have  recently  made  in  the  domestic-science  or 
manual-training  class. 

10.  How  to  Tie  Various  Knots. 


OR.\L  COMPOSITION  29 

A  second  device  for  makin<<  a  talk  before  our  class  effective 
is  the  use  of  a  rough  blackboard  sketch.  It  may  be  made  before 
the  recitation  begins  or  while  the  talk  is  being  given.  A  perfect 
drawing  is  not  necessary ;  the  important  things  are  that  the 
sketch  shall  give  some  idea  of  the  subject,  shall  have  its  parts 
properly  lettered,  and  shall  not  contain  too  many  details. 

EXERCISE 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  explain  orally  one  of  the  following 
subjects.  Before  you  begin  your  talk,  place  on  the  blackboard 
your  outline  and  a  drawing  to  illustrate  your  explanation. 

1.  How  to  Play  Tennis.  5.  An  Attractive  Bird  House. 

2.  How  to  Make  a  Lamp  Shade.  6.  An  Automatic  Poultry  Feeder. 

3.  Modeling  a  Hat  Frame.  7.  How  to  Use  a  Terracing  Level. 

4.  A  Trap  Nest.  8.  How  to  Graft  a  Tree. 

9.  The  Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Human  Body. 
10.  How  to  Lay  Off  a  Baseball  Field. 

The  following  questions  will  guide  the  class  in  their  criticism  of 
your  composition :  ( i )  Was  the  drawing  complete  and  properly 
lettered?  (2)  Did  the  speaker  talk  to  the  blackboard  or  to  the 
class?  (3)  Were  there  any  details  that  you  failed  to  understand? 
(4)  Was  any  part  of  the  drawing  unexplained  ? 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

I 

Retell  orally  the  incident  from  'Robinson  Crusoe"  suggested  by 
the  picture  facing  page  26  or  the  incident  from  ''Treasure  Island" 
suggested  by  the  picture  facing  page  54. 

II 

Study  the  other  pictures  in  this  book  and  prepare  a  talk  on  a 
subject  suggested  by  one  of  them.  Make  a  brief  outline  of  what 
you  intend  to  say. 


30  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III 

Prepare  a  talk  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  or  on  some  topic 
of  local  interest  in  politics,  athletics,  your  school,  or  your  home: 

1.  Training  a  Hunting  Dog. 

2.  First-Aid  Treatment  in  Cases  of  Drowning. 

3.  A  Tastefully  Furnished  Sitting  Room. 

4.  The  Work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  my  Community. 

5.  Ice  Harvesting. 

6.  A  Lobster  Pot. 

7.  Blanket  Weaving. 

8.  A  Snake  Hunt. 

9.  Unusual  Traits  of  a  Pet. 

10.  What  the  Boy  Scouts  Did  in  the  World  War. 

11.  A  Needed  Improvement  in  our  Town. 

12.  Rice  Growing. 

13.  Cranberry  Growing. 

14.  A  Local  Indian  Legend. 

15.  How  to  Secure  a  Patent  or  a  Copyright. 

16.  The  Uses  of  a  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm. 

17.  Salmon  Packing. 

18.  A  Process  in  a  Cotton  Mill. 

19.  What  it  Means  to  be  a  Camp-Fire  Girl. 

20.  An  Ideal  Vacation. 

21.  Rope  Making. 

22.  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Salesman. 

23.  My  Grandfather's  Favorite  Story. 

24.  The  history  of  some  interesting  invention. 

25.  What  a  Well-Trained  Ford  Can  Do. 

26.  The  Mechanics  of  an  Artesian  Well. 

27.  Irrigating  Arid  Lands. 

28.  The  Latest  Improvements  in  Dairying. 

29.  Fire  Protection. 

30.  Fly  Fishing. 

31.  The  Usefulness  of  Dogs  in  the  World  War. 

32.  Ice  Boating. 

33.  How  the  Schools  of  my  State  are  Supported. 

34.  Our  Athletic  Schedule  for  this  Year. 

35.  A  Good  Joke. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  31 

19,  Summary.  If  we  desire  to  speak,  and  write  well,  we 
should  improve  our  everyday  conversation. 

In  oral  composition  effective  delivery  is  next  in  importance 
to  a  good  subject. 

The  five  necessary  qualities  of  an  oral  composition  are 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  subject. 

2.  Clearness  of  thought. 

3.  Clearness  of  speeth. 

4.  Correctness  of  speech. 

5.  Vividness  of  speech. 

The  two  greatest  aids  to  clear  thinking  in  oral  composition 
are  (i)  the  choice  of  a  familiar  subject  that  we  are  capable  of 
making  clear  and  interesting  to  our  hearers  and  (2)  the  con- 
struction of  a  simple  outline  to  guide  us  in  our  talk. 

Two  devices  that  we  may  frequently  use  for  holding  the  at- 
tention of  our  audience  and  illustrating  our  talks  are  (i)  the 
object  itself,  or  a  small  model  of  it,  and  (2)  a  drawing  that  is 
properly  lettered  and  not  too  detailed. 


CHAPTER  III 
WRITTEN  COMPOSITION :  REPRODUCTION 

20.  Written  composition.  The  ability  to  write  exactly  what 
we  mean  is  one  of  the  most  important  attainments  in  life.  Al- 
most every  day  most  of  us  will  have  occasion  to  express  our- 
selves in  writing  as  well  as  in  speech.  During  our  school  days  we 
are  called  upon  to  write  exercises,  compositions,  reports,  exami- 
nation papers,  and  minutes  of  club  and  society  meetings.  In 
addition,  we  write  notes  and  letters  to  relatives,  friends,  and 
business  firms.  Many  of  us  will  desire  to  write  stories,  sketches, 
essays,  and  verse  for  our  school  and  local  papers.  After  we 
leave  school  we  shall  find  the  occasions  for  writing  infinitely 
increased  and  the  subjects  on  which  we  must  write  greatly 
multiplied.  In  learning  to  write  well,  as  in  learning  to  speak 
well,  we  shall  find  no  better  training  than  that  afforded  by  the 
written  work  in  our  various  courses.  We  should  not  make  the 
mistake  of  thinking  that  our  English  class  affords  us  the  only 
opportunity  that  we  have. 

Many  of  us  will  at  first  find  the  effort  to  write  our  own 
thoughts  difficult  and  uninteresting.  A  few  of  us  may  even  say, 
"Some  people  are  born  to  write,  and  they  will  write;  other 
people,  like  me,  are  not  born  to  write,  and  they  cannot  write." 
It  is  true  that  most  great  authors  are  born,  not  made.  It  is 
equally  true,  however,  that  anybody  may  acquire  a  certain 
skill  in  writing,  and  this  skill  is  so  valuable  that  no  one  should 
begrudge  the  labor  necessary  to  attain  it. 

21.  Oral  and  written  composition.  Written  expression,  since 
it  is  more  deliberately  composed,  is  almost  always  more  formal 
than  oral  expression.    Good  conversation  is  apparently  spon- 

32 


REPRODUCTION  33 

taneous,  effortless  speech.  Good  friendly  letters,  as  well  as 
many  familiar  essays  and  personal  sketches,  are  characterized 
by  much  the  same  pleasing  naturalness  of  expression,  though 
they  are  rarely  so  informal  as  conversation.  The  oral  composi- 
tions that  we  give  before  the  class  differ  from  the  easy,  familiar 
oral  expression  that  we  habitually  use  in  talking  with  our  fam- 
ily and  friends.  Likewise  most  of  our  written  compositions, 
since  they  will  represent  the  more  permanent  expression  of  our 
thoughts  deliberately  composed  for  a  large  number  of  readers, 
will  be  more  formal  both  in  plan  and  in  expression  than  our 
friendly  letters.  But  written  composition,  however  formal, 
should  never  be  impersonal  or  mechanical.  On  the  contrary,  it 
should  at  all  times  give  evidence  of  the  writer's  personality  and 
originality  in  his  choice  of  subjects  and  materials  for  composi- 
tion, as  well  as  in  his  manner  of  expressing  his  thoughts. 

22.  The  proper  form  for  written  composition.  In  oral  com- 
position, as  we  have  learned,  the  success  of  our  talk  depends 
largely  upon  the  correctness  of  our  speech  and  the  effectiveness 
of  our  manner  of  speaking.  In  written  composition,  if  we  are 
to  attract  readers  and  make  the  comprehension  of  our  thoughts 
easy  and  pleasant  for  them,  we  must  use  great  care  in  arranging 
on  paper  what  we  have  to  say.  An  untidy  composition,  like  an 
untidy  person,  creates  a  bad  impression  and  lays  itself  open 
to  prejudice  and  unfavorable  comment.  Though  we  may  have 
good  ideas  about  our  subject  and  may  think  clearly  and  express 
ourselves  effectively,  if  our  manuscripts  are  lacking  in  neatness 
and  correctness  of  arrangement,  persons  who  might  otherwise 
enjoy  reading  what  we  have  written  will  judge  us  slovenly  in  all 
our  habits  and  put  our  composition  aside  unread.  Whether  we 
are  composing  a  letter  to  a  friend,  writing  a  composition  for  our 
English  class,  or  preparing  a  manuscript  for  an  editor,  we 
should  make  our  manuscript  neat,  correct,  and  attractive  in 
every  detail. 


34  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  rules  governing  the  proper  arrangement  of  manuscript 
have  become  well  established,  though  they  may  vary  in  some 
particulars,  such  as  the  manner  of  folding  and  indorsing  the  paper. 
//  your  teacher  gives  you  no  other  instructions,  prepare  all  your 
written  compositions  according  to  the  following  directions: 

1.  Writing-materials.  Provide  yourself  with  what  is  com- 
monly called  theme  paper.  This  is  usually  ruled  and  has  a 
margin  at  the  left.  Use  black  ink  and  a  clean  pen  that  does  not 
scratch  or  blot.  Keep  at  hand  a  good  ink-eraser  and  a  clean 
blotter.   A  ruler  will  often  be  found  convenient. 

2.  The  title.  Write  the  title  on  the  first  line  of  the  page. 
Arrange  it  so  that  the  spaces  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  of  it 
shall  be  equal.  If  the  title  is  too  long  to  be  written  on  one  line, 
put  as  much  of  it  as  will  look  well  on  the  first  line,  and  place  the 
rest,  centrally  spaced,  on  the  next  line ;  thus : 

HOW  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  MY  STATE 
ARE  SUPPORTED 

Begin  with  a  capital  letter  the  first  word  and  all  other  impor- 
tant words  in  the  title.  The  underscoring  of  each  word  in  the  title 
with  three  straight  lines  indicates  that  all  letters  would  be  printed 
in  capitals.  If  you  typewrite  your  composition,  capitalize  all  let- 
ters in  the  title.  No  mark  of  punctuation  should  follow  the  title. 

3.  Indenting.  Begin  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph  about 
an  inch  to  the  right  of  the  margin  line  at  the  left  of  the  page. 
This  is  called  indenting  the  paragraph. 

4.  Margin.  If  your  theme  paper  has  no  margin  line,  rule  off 
a  margin  of  one  inch  at  the  left  side  of  each  page.  Do  not  write 
in  this  margin.  By  care  in  the  arrangement  of  words  and  in 
the  division  of  syllables  by  means  of  the  hyphen,  try  to  avoid 
leaving  long,  irregular  blank  spaces  at  the  right  side  of  the 
pages.  Do  not  crowd  words  at  the  end  of  the  line.  Make  the 
entire  page  neat  and  attractive  in  appearance. 


REPRODUCTION  35 

5.  Pages.  Write  on  only  one  side  of  the  paper.  Do  not  skip 
the  first  line  on  a  page.  If  the  last  line  is  so  near  the  bottom  of 
the  page  that  the  lower  stem  letters  cannot  be  made  dis- 
tinctly, leave  it  blank.  Number  each  page  in  the  upper  right 
corner.  Use  arable  figures.  Place  no  punctuation  after  page 
numbers. 

6.  Folding.  Having  arranged  the  sheets  in  order,  fold  them 
together  once  lengthwise.    See  that  the  edges  are  even. 

7.  The  indorsement.  Place  the  folded  composition  on  the 
desk  before  you  so  that  the  loose  edges  are  toward  your  right 
hand.  Be  sure  that  you  have  not  carelessly  turned  your  paper 
upside  down.  About  two  inches  down  from  the  top  of  the 
folded  paper  write  the  first  line  of  the  indorsement.  The  in- 
dorsement should  include  your  name,  your  class  and  section, 
and  the  date,  and  should  be  written  as  follows : 

Helen  F.  Ames 
English  I  A 
October  17,  1922 

8.  /;/  general.    Observe  the  following  suggestions: 

a.  Write  neatly  and  legibly.  Avoid  flourishes,  conspicuous 
shading,  or  any  other  peculiarity  in  penmanship. 

b.  If  you  discover  that  you  have  misspelled  a  word  that  you 
have  just  finished  writing,  do  not  draw  a  line  through  it  or 
inclose  it  in  marks  of  parenthesis  and  then  write  the  correctly 
spelled  word  after  it  or  above  it.  Erase  the  misspelled  word 
neatly  with  an  ink-eraser  or  a  penknife  and  w-rite  the  word 
correctly  spelled  in  its  place. 

c.  If  you  have  omitted  w^ords,  do  not  write  them  above  the 
line  when  you  can  avoid  doing  so.  It  is  better  to  rewrite  the 
entire  page. 

d.  Never  present  a  soiled  or  blotted  manuscript.  Rewrite 
any  pages  that  are  not  neat  and  clean. 


36  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

e.  Take  pride  in  making  every  written  exercise  correct  and 
attractive  in  its  arrangement  on  the  paper.  Good  thoughts 
make  a  better  impression  when  they  are  arranged  in  strict 
accord  with  the  principles  of  good  form. 

23.  Requirements  of  learning  to  write.  Three  things  are  nec- 
essary if  we  would  master  English  as  a  means  of  effective  ex- 
pression: (i)  We  must  have  something  to  say.  (2)  We  must 
have  some  idea  of  how  we  wish  to  say  it.  (3 )  We  must  practice 
the  different  ways  of  saying  it  until  we  can  say  it  well. 

Many  of  us  who  express  ourselves  freely  and  naturally  on  a 
great  variety  of  subjects  in  conversation  and  in  letters  to  our 
friends  have  difficulty  in  finding  something  to  say  when  we  are 
given  an  opportunity  to  express  our  thoughts  in  writing  for  a 
larger  number  of  readers.  There  are  usually  two  reasons  for 
our  difficulty.  First,  we  have  acquired  the  erroneous  idea  that 
the  subjects  and  materials  that  we  use  in  oral  composition  are 
not  suitable  for  written  composition.  That  is  a  mistake.  The 
subjects  and  the  materials  are  usually  the  same.  The  chief 
difference  between  oral  and  written  composition  is  that  in  Avrit- 
ing  we  compose  somewhat  more  deliberately  and  try  to  make 
the  interpretation  of  our  thoughts  accurate  and  easy  without 
the  assistance  of  vocal  inflection,  gestures,  and  other  aids  that 
we  naturally  employ  in  speaking.  If  we  will  first  give  our  com- 
position orally,  we  shall  rarely  find  very  much  difficulty  in  ex- 
pressing the  same  thoughts  in  writing.  A  great  part  of  our  best 
literature  is  nothing  more  than  good  talk  permanently  recorded 
in  writing. 

A  second  reason  why  it  is  difficult  for  some  of  us  to  find  some- 
thing to  write  about,  or  even  to  talk  about  interestingly,  is  that 
we  are  not  mentally  wide-awake.  We  fail  to  make  good  use  of 
our  eyes  and  ears  and  other  organs  of  sense.  We  do  not  exert 
ourselves  to  learn  anything  that  is  not  assigned  us  or  forced 
upon  us.   We  fail  to  observe  the  scores  of  interesting  things 


REPRODL'CTIOX  37 

that  surround  us  in  our  daily  lives,  More  than  that,  we  often 
fail  to  think  about  the  thinj^s  that  we  notice.  The  world  is  so 
full  of  interesting  everyday  things  for  everyday  people  that  it 
should  be  impossible,  for  any  person  who  sees  and  hears  and 
thinks,  to  have  diflkulty  in  finding  something  interesting  to 
write  about.  Observation  of  people  and  things  about  us,  and 
a  little  care  in  discovering  our  own  interests  in  life,  will  enable 
us  to  find  as  much  material  for  written  compositions  as  we 
naturally  make  use  of  in  oral  composition. 

24.  The  value  of  reading.  Though  it  is  not  the  office  of  the 
writings  of  others  to  furnish  us  material  for  our  compositions, 
the  value  of  wide  reading  as  a  means  of  getting  ideas  and  of  fur- 
nishing ourselves  with  models  of  effective  expression  cannot  be 
overestimated.  Through  books  we  become  acquainted  w-ith 
new  realms  of  thought.  A  book  of  travel  acquaints  us  with 
new  countries,  new  people,  and  new  customs.  A  biography  may 
introduce  us  to  some  person  or  group  of  persons  worth  know- 
ing. An  essay  tells  us  what  its  author  has  thought  and  felt. 
Short  stories,  novels,  and  plays  stimulate  our  imagination  by 
presenting  interesting  persons  in  situations  that  reveal  their 
character  as  well  as  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  authors.  If 
we  read  books  thoughtfully,  we  gradually  learn  through  un- 
conscious imitation  to  improve  our  own  writing,  just  as  associa- 
tion with  good  speakers  will  enable  us  to  improve  the  quality 
of  our  speech.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  we  read  well- 
written  books,  for  books  are  like  people  in  their  influence  over 
us.  Just  as  we  unconsciously  adopt  a  friend's  mannerisms,  so 
we  imitate  a  writer's  manner  of  expression,  or,  as  we  term  it, 
his  style.  If  we  read  books  written  in  an  interesting,  pleasing 
style  and  filled  with  life  and  personality,  our  own  manner  of 
writing  will  necessarily  be  improved. 

25.  The  value  of  conscious  imitation  and  emulation.  Uncon- 
scious imitation  of  good  speakers  and  writers  will,  as  we  have 

45B5412 


38  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

observed,  result  in  the  gradual  improvement  of  our  own  oral 
and  written  expression.  But  conscious  imitation,  plus  emula- 
tion, will  enable  us  to  make  much  more  rapid  progress.  That 
is,  if  we  pay  close  attention  to  the  thought  expressed  and  the 
style  employed  by  more  experienced  speakers  and  writers,  and 
then  practice  retelling  their  thoughts  in  our  own  words,  we 
shall  learn  much  about  the  construction  and  the  coordination  of 
parts  in  a  well-planned  composition.  If  we  later  go  one  step 
further  and  emulate  their  style  in  expressing  our  own  thoughts, 
we  shall  find  our  approach  to  original  composition-writing 
natural  and  easy.  From  our  infancy  to  the  present  time  we 
have  freely  employed  imitation  and  emulation  in  our  attempts 
at  learning  to  speak  and  to  write.  Heretofore  the  process  has 
been  for  most  of  us  an  unconscious  one.  Henceforth  it  should 
become  a  conscious  process. 

Many  of  our  greatest  thinkers  and  writers  trained  themselves 
in  clear  thinking  and  forceful  expression  by  consciously  imi- 
tating and  emulating  other  speakers  and  writers.  Lincoln, 
Franklin,  and  Stevenson  taught  themselves  much  by  this  proc- 
ess, though  they  by  no  means  continued  to  be  imitators  of 
others.  They  used  the  skill  they  had  thus  acquired  as  a  means 
of  more  effectively  expressing  their  own  thoughts. 

26.  How  Lincoln  taught  himself  clear  expression.  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  speech  ranks  as  a  masterpiece  of  clear,  effective  ex- 
pression. In  Lincoln's  own  words  we  have  the  explanation  of 
how  he  acquired  this  mastery  of  the  English  language. 

I  can  remember  going  to  my  little  bedroom  after  hearing  the 
neighbors  talk  of  an  evening  with  my  father,  and  spending  no 
small  part  of  the  night  walking  up  and  down  and  trying  to  make 
out  what  was  the  exact  meaning  of  their,  to  me,  dark  sayings. 
I  could  not  sleep,  though  I  often  tried  to,  when  I  got  on  such  a 
hunt  after  an  idea,  until  I  had  caught  it ;  and  when  I  thought  I  had 
got  it,  I  was  not  satisfied  until  I  had  repeated  it  over  and  over, 


REPRODUCTION  39 

until  I  had  put  it  into  language  plain  enough,  as  I  thought,  for 
any  boy  I  knew  to  comprehend. 

That  is,  Lincoln's  desire  for  accurate  knowledge  and  clear 
expression  made  it  impossible  for  him,  even  in  boyhood,  to  rest 
content  until  he  had  fully  comprehended  the  "dark  sayings"  of 
his  elders  and  had  retold  these  sayings  in  language  so  simple 
that  any  of  his  boy  associates  could  understand  them.  We  see 
the  result  of  this  great  passion  of  his  for  self-expression  in 
the  wonderful  simplicity,  directness,  and  power  of  all  his  later 
speeches,  letters,  and  State  papers.  Lincoln  acquired  the  ability 
to  explain  himself,  and  he  possessed  the  courage  to  stand  firm 
for  what  he  believed  to  be  right.  These  two  characteristics  made 
him  a  leader  of  men.  He  was  able  to  command  what  he  wanted. 

27.  How  Franklin  taught  himself  to  write.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, another  great  American,  second  only  to  Lincoln  as  a  states- 
man and  public  benefactor,  owed  much  of  his  greatness  to  his 
ability  to  say  exactly  what  he  meant.  In  his  ''Autobiography" 
he  tells  us  how  he  consciously  imitated  and  emulated  other 
writers,  particularly  Addison  and  Defoe. 

About  this  time  [at  the  age  of  fourteen]  I  met  with  an  odd 
volume  of  the  Spectator.  It  was  the  third.  I  had  never  before 
seen  any  of  them,  I  bought  it,  read  it  over  and  over,  and  was  much 
delighted  with  it.  I  thought  the  writing  excellent,  and  wished,  if 
possible,  to  imitate  it.  With  this  view  I  took  some  of  the  papers, 
and,  making  short  hints  of  the  sentiment  in  each  sentence,  laid 
them  by  a  few  days,  and  then,  without  looking  at  the  book,  tried 
to  complete  the  papers  again,  by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment 
at  length,  and  as  fully  as  it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suit- 
able words  that  should  come  to  hand.  Then  I  compared  my 
Spectator  with  the  original,  discovered  some  of  my  faults,  and  cor- 
rected them.  But  I  found  I  wanted  a  stock  of  words,  or  a  readiness 
in  recollecting  and  using  them,  which  I  thought  I  should  have 
acquired  before  that  time  if  I  had  gone  on  making  verses  [as  he 
had  formerly  done  until  his  father  discouraged  him]  ;  since  the 


40  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

continual  occasion  for  words  of  the  same  import,  but  of  different 
length,  to  suit  the  measure,  or  of  different  sound  for  the  rime, 
would  have  laid  me  under  a  constant  necessity  of  searching  for 
variety,  and  also  have  tended  to  fix  that  variety  in  my  mind, 
and  make  me  master  of  it.  Therefore  I  took  some  of  the  tales  and 
turned  them  into  verses ;  and,  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well 
forgotten  the  prose,  turned  them  back  again.  I  also  sometimes 
jumbled  my  collections  of  hints  into  confusion,  and  after  some 
weeks  endeavored  to  reduce  them  into  the  best  order,  before  I  be- 
gan to  form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the  paper.  This  was 
to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of  thoughts.  By  compar- 
ing my  work  afterwards  with  the  original,  I  discovered  many  faults 
and  amended  them ;  but  I  sometimes  had  the  pleasure  of  fancying 
that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small  import,  I  had  been  lucky 
enough  to  improve  the  method  or  the  language,  and  this  encour- 
aged me  to  think  that  I  might  possibly  in  time  come  to  be  a  toler- 
able English  writer,  of  which  I  was  extremely  ambitious.  My  time 
for  these  exercises  and  for  reading  was  at  night,  after  work  or 
before  it  began  in  the  morning,  or  on  Sundays. 

28.  How  Stevenson  taught  himself  to  write.  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson,  one  of  the  most  versatile  English  writers  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  likewise  taught  himself  to  write  by  means 
of  conscious  imitation  and  emulation.  Here  is  a  part  of  his 
account  of  the  process. 

All  through  my  boyhood  and  youth  I  was  known  and  pointed 
out  for  the  pattern  of  an  idler ;  and  yet  I  was  always  busy  on  my 
own  private  end,  which  was  to  learn  to  write.  I  kept  always  two 
books  in  my  pocket,  one  to  read,  one  to  write  in.  As  I  walked,  my 
mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with  appropriate  words ;  when 
I  sat  by  the  roadside,  I  would  either  read,  or  a  pencil  and  a  penny 
version-book  would  be  in  my  hand,  to  note  down  the  features  of 
the  scene  or  commemorate  some  halting  stanzas.  Thus  I  lived 
with  words.  And  what  I  thus  wrote  was  for  no  ulterior  use;  it 
was  written  consciously  for  practice.  It  was  not  so  much  that  I 
wished  to  be  an  author  (though  I  wished  that  too)  as  that  I  had 


REPRODUCTION  41 

vowed  that  I  would  learn  to  write.  That  was  a  proficiency  that 
tempted  me;  and  1  practiced  to  acquire  it,  as  men  learn  to  whittle, 
in  a  wager  with  myself.  Description  was  the  principal  field  of  my 
exercise;  for  to  anyone  with  senses  there  is  always  something 
worth  describing,  and  town  and  country  are  but  one  continuous 
subject.  But  I  worked  in  other  ways  also;  often  accompanied 
my  walks  with  dramatic  dialogues,  in  which  I  played  many  parts ; 
and  often  exercised  myself  in  writing  down  conversations  from 
memory. 

Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage  that  particularly  pleased 
me,  in  which  a  thing  was  said  or  an  effect  rendered  with  propriety, 
in  which  there  was  either  some  conspicuous  force  or  some  happy 
distinction  of  style,  I  must  sit  down  at  once  and  set  myself  to  ape 
that  quality.  I  was  unsuccessful,  and  I  knew  it ;  and  tried  again, 
and  was  again  unsuccessful  and  always  unsuccessful ;  but  at  least 
in  these  vain  bouts,  I  got  some  practice  in  rhythm,  in  harmony,  in 
construction  and  the  coordination  of  parts.  I  have  thus  played  the 
sedulous  ape  to  Hazlitt,  to  Lamb,  to  Wordsworth,  to  Sir  Thomas 
Browne,  to  Defoe,  to  Hawthorne,  to  Montaigne,  to  Baudelaire,  and 
to  Obermann.  .  .  .  Even  at  the  age  of  thirteen  I  tried  to  do  justice 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  famous  city  of  Peebles  in  the  style  of  the 
■'Book  of  Snobs."  .  .  . 

That,  like  it  or  not,  is  the  way  to  learn  to  write ;  whether  I  have 
profited  or  not,  that  is  the  way.^ 

29.  Self-cultivation  in  English  through  reproduction.     In 

three  respects,  at  least,  the  experiences  of  Lincoln,  Franklin, 
and  Stevenson  are  identical. 

1.  Each  man  discovered  in  boyhood  his  desire  to  learn  to 
express  himself  well,  and  definitely  resolved  to  realize  his  desire. 

2.  Each  set  himself  diligently  to  work  in  boyhood  and  con- 
tinued to  work  diligently  during  manhood  until  he  had  accom- 
plished his  purpose. 

iprom  "The  Essays  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,"  published  by  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.    Used  by  permission. 


42  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  Each  taught  himself,  through  conscious  imitation  and 
emulation,  to  express  his  own  thoughts  effectively. 

All  three  men  acquired  their  mastery  of  the  English  language 
through  self-cultivation. 

30.  Additional  value  of  reproduction.  Retelling  in  our  own 
words  the  thoughts  of  another  not  only  provides  a  natural  and 
helpful  approach  to  original  composition  but  also  cultivates 
accuracy  in  hearing  and  in  reading.  If  all  of  us  heard  correctly, 
we  should  be  guilty  of  fewer  inaccurate  statements.  If  we  truly 
read,— that  is,  "thought  the  author's  thought  after  him,"— we 
should  be  much  better  informed,  and  the  task  of  the  author 
would  be  lightened.  The  person  whom  we  like  to  employ  in 
business,  or  to  have  as  a  friend,  is  the  one  who  can  be  trusted  to 
*'get  things  straight."  This  "getting  things  straight"  is  not 
merely  a  matter  of  honesty  or  cleverness  but  is  quite  as  much  a 
matter  of  attention  and  of  care  in  retelling.  The  habits  of  at- 
tention and  of  care  in  retelling  can  be  and  should  be  cultivated. 

31.  Methods  of  retelling  another  person's  thought.  There 
are  three  ways  of  reproducing  another  person's  thought: 
(i)  We  may  retell  it  closely.  (2)  We  may  condense  it.  (3)  We 
may  expand  it. 

32.  First  method:  retelling  closely.  To  retell  another  per- 
son's thought  closely  means  to  reproduce  as  nearly  as  possible 
his  ideas  in  words  of  our  own.  If  the  passage  to  be  retold 
contains  figurative  language,  instead  of  a  literal  statement, 
we  shall  often  find  that  a  paraphrase  in  simpler  language  will 
render  our  version  of  the  original  more  clear.  The  first  four 
of  the  retold  versions  given  below  are  literal  reproductions; 
the  fifth,  however,  is  a  paraphrase. 

1.  "To  say  nothing  and  saw  wood"  seems  to  me  one  of  the  most 
sagacious  phrases  passed  down  by  our  hard-working  forbears. 

Retold.  I  think  that  the  expression  "to  say  nothing  and  saw  wood" 
is  one  of  the  wisest  sayings  handed  down  to  us  by  our  energetic  ancestors. 


REPRODUCTION  43 

2.  It  is  not  that  the  outside  world  is  wearisome  :  the  trouble  is  with 
the  monotony  of  our  own  minds. 

Retold.  When  we  are  bored,  as  we  think,  with  life,  it  is  not  the 
world  without  that  is  uninteresting,  but  our  own  minds  that  are  dull  and 
commonplace. 

3.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  for  some  people  mathematics  has 
flavor,  even  though  for  me  it  is  as  the  apples  of  Sodom. 

Retold.  It  is  true  that  for  some  persons  mathematics  is  a  delight  to 
their  mental  taste,  but  for  me  it  is  dry  and  insipid. 

4.  The  world  is  so  full  of  a  number  of  things. 

I'm  sure  we  should  all  be  as  happy  as  kings.  —  Stevenson 
Retold.    There  is  such  a  variety  of  interesting  things  in  our  everyday 
lives  that  we  should  all  be  supremely  happy. 

5.  "There  is  none  like  to  me,"  says  the  cub. 

In  the  pride  of  his  earliest  kill. 
But  the  jungle  is  large,  and  the  cub  —  he  is  small. 
Let  him  think,  and  be  still.  —  Kipling 
Retold.    After  his  first  achievement  a  young  person  is  apt  to  believe 
that  he  can  accomplish  more  than  anyone  else.    He  must  discover,  how- 
ever, that  the  affairs  of  the  world  are  much  more  important  than  his 
own,  and  must  learn  to  be  modest. 

The  value  of  retelling  another  person's  thought  closely  lies 
in  the  fact  that  in  retelling  we  are  forced  to  realize  how  care- 
fully the  writer  has  worded  his  thought.  Notice  how  inferior 
the  retold  version  is  to  the  original  in  the  examples  given  above. 
Furthermore,  in  order  to  reproduce  what  another  has  said,  we 
should  thoroughly  understand  every  word  used  in  the  original 
expression.  To  do  this  we  must  increase  our  vocabularies  by 
looking  up  new  words  and  discovering  their  exact  meaning. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  value  of  retelling  closely  is  that  it  compels 
us  to  read  carefully.  When  we  read  hurriedly  we  get  only  a 
general  impression  and  therefore  often  miss  important  details. 

33.  General  directions  for  retelling  closely  what  is  read.  We 
shall  usually  find  it  easier  to  retell  what  we  read  than  what  w^e 
hear,  for  we  can  reread  the  passage  we  are  considering  as  often 


44  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

as  we  wish.  We  shall  need,  however,  to  give  careful  attention 
to  the  work  of  reproducing  closely  what  we  have  read.  The 
following  directions  should  be  observed : 

1.  Read  aloud  the  selection  that  is  to  be  retold.  Reread  it 
until  you  understand  clearly  what  the  author  has  said.  Make 
use  of  an  unabridged  dictionary  to  find  the  correct  meaning  of 
any  words  that  are  not  familiar  to  you. 

2.  When  you  have  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  pas- 
sage, reproduce  as  nearly  as  you  can,  in  your  own  words,  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  original.  Use  words  and  phrases  that  the 
writer  has  employed  only  when  expression  of  the  thought  in 
your  own  words  would  result  in  a  change  in  meaning. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  make  the  process  of  retelling  closely  an 
exercise  in  the  mere  substitution  of  words.  Get  the  author's 
thought  and  then  interpret  it  in  your  own  language. 

4.  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  the  original  construction  of 
a  sentence.  Variety  may  be  secured  by  changing  from  indirect 
to  direct  discourse,  or  from  a  declarative  sentence  to  an  in- 
terrogative or  an  exclamatory  sentence.  There  will  be  a  greater 
number  of  changes  of  construction  in  retelling  poetry  than  ia 
retelling  prose. 

5.  In  changing  poetry  to  prose  avoid  any  suggestion  of  rime. 
Avoid  also  the  use  of  poetic  words,  such  as  morn,  eve,  oft,  e'en, 
o'er,  ere,  methinks,  forsooth,  erstwhile. 

EXERCISES 
I 

Express  accurately  in  your  own  words  the  thoughts  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages : 

1.  Fine  art  is  that  in  which  the  hand,  the  head,  and  the  heart  go 
together. 

2.  Nothing  great  was  ever  achieved  without  enthusiasm. 

3.  He  was  like  a  cock  who  thought  the  sun  had  risen  to  hear  him  crow. 


REPRODUCTION  45 

4.  No  man  can  produce  great  things  who  is  not  thoroughly  sincere 
in  dealing  with  himself. 

5.  It  is  much  easier  to  be  critical  than  to  be  correct. 

6.  He  who  has  truth  at  his  heart  need  never  fear  the  want  of  per- 
suasion of  his  tongue. 

7.  The  greatest  efforts  of  the  race  have  always  been  traceable  to  the 
love  of  praise,  as  its  greatest  catastrophes  to  the  love  of  pleasure. 

8.  Every  great  crisis  of  human  history  is  a  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
and  there  are  always  a  Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  to  die  in  it  if 
they  cannot  conquer. 

9.  The  world  is  a  comedy  to  those  who  think,  a  tragedy  to  those 
who  feel. 

10.  What  stamps  a  man  as  great  is  not  freedom  from  faults,  but 
abundance  of  powers. 

11.  In  small  proportions  we  just  beauties  see, 
And  in  short  measures  life  may  perfect  be. 

12.  Who  to  himself  is  law  no  law  doth  need, 
Offends  no  law,  and  is  a  king  indeed. 

13.  Words  are  like  leaves  ;  and  where  they  most  abound, 
Much  fruit  of  sense  beneath  is  rarely  found. 

14.  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men, 

Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune ; 
Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life 
Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries. 

15.  So  nigh  is  grandeur  to  our  dust, 

So  near  is  God  to  man, 
When  Duty  whispers  low,  Thou  must, 
The  Youth  replies,  /  can. 

II 

Retell  in  your  own  words  the  following  passages : 

1.  I  heard  a  true  story,  not  long  ago.  of  a  lady,  fond  of  dogs  and 
accustomed  to  them,  who  went  to  visit  a  friend,  the  owner  of  a  splendid 
but  most  formidable  animal— a  mastiff,  if  I  remember  rightly.  The 
visitor  did  not  happen  to  meet  with  the  dog  till  she  suddenly  came  upon 
him  in  a  doorway  she  was  about  to  pass  through.  It  chanced  somehow 
that  she  did  not  see  him,  and,  stepping  hastily,  she  unfortunately  trod 


46  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

upon  his  foot  or  his  tail.  The  huge  fellow  instantly  laid  hold  of  her ; 
but  before  the  dog's  master,  a  short  distance  off,  could  hasten  to  the 
rescue,  the  lady  had  looked  down,  exclaiming  quick  as  thought,  "Oh,  I 
beg  your  pardon!  "  whereupon  the  mastiff  as  quickly  let  go  his  grasp.  It 
is  plain  that  this  lady  had  a  proper  respect  for  the  feelings  of  dogs  in 
general,  prompting  to  an  habitual  kindly  treatment  of  them,  and  instinct 
led  her  to  apologize  at  once  for  the  inadvertent  injury,  as  she  would 
have  done  to  a  person. — Atlmitic  Monthly^ 

2.  Conclusions,  indeed,  are  not  often  reached  by  talk  any  more  than 
by  private  thinking.  That  is  not  the  profit.  The  profit  is  in  the  exercise 
[of  talking],  and  above  all  in  the  experience;  for  when  we  reason  at 
large  on  any  subject,  we  review  our  state  and  history  in  Hfe.  From  time 
to  time,  however,  and  specially,  I  think,  in  talking  art,  talk  becomes 
effective,  conquering  like  war,  widening  the  boundaries  of  knowledge 
like  an  exploration.  A  point  arises  ;  the  question  takes  a  problematical, 
a  bafifling,  yet  a  likely  air ;  the  talkers  begin  to  feel  lively  presentiments 
of  some  conclusion  near  at  hand  ;  towards  this  they  strive  with  emulous 
ardor,  each  by  his  own  path,  and  struggling  for  first  utterance ;  and 
then  one  leaps  upon  the  summit  of  the  matter  with  a  shout,  and  almost 
at  the  same  moment  the  other  is  beside  him ;  and  behold  they  are 
agreed.  Like  enough,  the  progress  is  illusory,  a  mere  cat's  cradle  having 
been  wound  and  unwound  out  of  words.  But  the  sense  of  joint  dis- 
covery is  none  the  less  giddy  and  inspiriting.  And  in  the  life  of  the 
talker  such  triumphs,  though  imaginary,  are  neither  few  nor  far  apart ; 
they  are  attained  with  speed  and  pleasure,  in  the  hour  of  mirth;  and  by 
the  nature  of  the  process,  they  are  always  worthily  shared.  —  Stevenson  - 

III 

Write  a  good  prose  reproduction  of  the  following  fable  told  in 
verse.  Try  in  your  own  version  to  preserve  the  pleasing  qualities 
of  the  original. 

The  Gossips  tell  the  story  of  the  Sparrow  and  the  Cat, 
The  Feline  thin  and  hungry  and  the  Bird  exceeding  fat. 
With  eager,  famished  energy  and  claws  of  gripping  steel. 
Puss  pounced  upon  the  Sparrow  and  prepared  to  make  a  meal. 

1  Reprinted  by  permission  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  Press. 
2 From  "The  Essays  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,"  published  by  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.   Used  by  permission. 


4 


REPRODUCTION 

The  Sparrow  never  struggled  when  he  found  that  he  was  caught 
(If  somewhat  slow  in  action  he  was  mighty  quick  of  thought), 
But  chirped  in  simple  dignity  that  seemed  to  fit  the  case, 
"No  Gentleman  would  ever  eat  before  he'd  washed  his  face!" 

This  hint  about  his  Manners  wounded  Thomas  like  a  knife 
(For  Cats  are  great  observers  of  the  Niceties  of  Life)  ; 
He  paused  to  lick  his  paws,  which  seemed  the  Proper  Thing  to  do,- 
And,  chirruping  derisively,  away  the  Sparrow  flew ! 

In  helpless,  hopeless  hunger  at  the  Sparrow  on  the  bough. 
Poor  Thomas  glowered  longingly,  and  vowed  a  Solemn  Vow : 
"Henceforth  I'll  eat  my  dinner  first,  the^i  wash  myself!"  — 

And  that's 
The  Universal  Etiquette  for  Educated  Cats. 


47 


Arthur  Guiterman^ 


IV 


Read  the  following  description  aloud  several  times  until  you 
have  a  vivid  picture  of  the  scene  described,  then  reproduce  it  in 
your  own  words : 

In  the  field  sloping  down. 
Park-like,  to  where  its  willows  showed  the  brook. 
Haymakers  rested.    The  tosser  lay  forsook 
Out  in  the  sun  ;  and  the  long  wagon  stood 
Without  its  team  ;  it  seemed  it  never  would 
Move  from  the  shadow  of  that  single  yew. 
The  team,  as  still,  until  their  task  was  due, 
Beside  the  laborers  enjoyed  the  shade 
That  three  squat  oaks  mid-field  together  made 
Upon  a  circle  of  grass  and  weed  uncut. 
And  on  the  hollow,  once  a  chalk-pit,  but 
Now  brimmed  with  nut  and  elder-flower  so  clean. 
The  men  leaned  on  their  rakes,  about  to  begin, 
But  still.  And  all  were  silent.  .  .  .  ^^^^^  ^^^^, 

iprom  "The  Laughing  Muse,"  copyrighted,  igiS,  by  Harper  and  Brothers. 
Used  by  permission  of  the  author  and  the  publishers. 

2  From"  Poems,"  published  by  Henry  Holland  Company.  Used  by  permission. 


48  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


After  you  have  read  the  following  poem  several  times  aloud  until 
you  thoroughly  understand  it,  reproduce  it  in  prose  in  your  own 
words : 

BROOKLYN  BRIDGE  AT  DAWN 

Out  of  the  cleansing  night  of  stars  and  tides, 

Building  itself  anew  in  the  slow  dawn, 

The  long  sea-city  rises  :  night  is  gone, 
Day  is  not  yet ;  still  merciful,  she  hides 
Her  summoning  brow,  and  still  the  night-car  glides 

Empty  of  faces  ;  the  night  watchmen  yawn 

One  to  the  other,  and  shiver  and  pass  on, 
Nor  yet  a  soul  over  the  great  bridge  rides. 

Frail  as  a  gossamer,  a  thing  of  air, 
A  bow  of  shadow  o'er  the  river  flung. 

Its  sleepy  masts  and  lonely  lapping  flood ; 
Who,  seeing  thus  the  bridge  a-slumber  there. 
Would  dream  such  softness,  like  a  picture  hung, 
Is  wrought  of  human  thunder,  iron  and  blood? 

Richard  Le  Gallienne^ 


ORAL  EXERCISES 

I 

Retell  closely  either  Franklin's  or  Stevenson's  account  of  how  he 
taught  himself  to  write  (see  pages  39-41). 

II 

Read  again  the  fable  ''Man's   Threescore  and  Ten  Years" 
(pages  19-20)  and  reproduce  it  in  your  own  words. 

Ill 

Retell  closely  some  topic  that  you  have  recently  studied  in 
history. 

1  Used  by  the  author's  permission. 


■i^' 


REPRODUCTION  49 

IV 

Reproduce  in  your  own  words  some  short  poem  or  anecdote  that 
you  have  lately  read.    Do  not  memorize  the  selection. 


Retell  in  your  own  words  the  incident  in  ''Robinson  Crusoe" 
that  is  suggested  by  the  picture  facing  page  26. 

\'I 

Reproduce  in  your  own  words  the  incident  in  "Treasure  Island" 
that  is  suggested  by  the  picture  facing  page  54. 

34.  Translation  a  valuable  means  of  retelling  closely.  Trans- 
lation from  a  foreign  language  is  one  of  the  best  exercises  in 
reproducing  closely  the  thought  expressed  by  another.  In  order 
to  translate  a  passage  successfully,  we  must  first  understand  the 
thought  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  foreign  language  and  then  be 
able  to  reproduce  this  thought  accurately  in  our  own  language. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  translate  literally,  to  give  word 
by  word,  in  the  most  exact  manner,  the  English  equivalent  of 
each  foreign  construction.  The  chief  value  of  such  translation 
is  that  it  enables  us  to  understand  the  peculiarity,  or  idiom,  of 
the  foreign  tongue.  It  is  without  value  as  a  piece  of  Enghsh, 
however,  unless  the  idiom  is  common  to  the  two  languages. 
''He  went  walking"  is  idiomatic  in  both  German  and  English; 
but  if  we  wish  to  say  "I  am  better,"  and  use  the  German  idiom 
"It  goes  to  me  better,"  we  are  not  speaking  English  at  all. 

We  should  never  rest  content,  therefore,  with  merely  trans- 
lating words:  we  should  notice  the  idiomatic  expressions  and 
translate  them  into  idiomatic  English.  In  many  cases,  too, 
even  if  a  literally  translated  passage  is  grammatically  correct, 
it  will  gain  much  in  clearness  and  force  by  a  free  translation. 
Compare  the  following  examples  of  foreign  idioms  and  their 
English  equivalents : 


50 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Literal  Translation  of 
Foreign  Idioms 

Latin 

A  book  is  to  me. 

Clad  in  armor  as  to  his  head. 

The  army  having  been  put  to 
flight,  Caesar  went  into  win- 
ter quarters. 

French 

At  the  house  of  you. 
What  age  has  John? 
How  go  you  ? 
I  have  sickness  to  the  head. 

Spanish 

I  have  hunger. 
The  boy  serves  for  nothing. 
Your  coffee  puts  itself  cold. 
How    well    to    her    falls    that 
dress  ! 

German 

How  goes  it? 
To  house. 

Where  cause  you  for  yourself 
your  clothes  to  be  made? 


Idiomatic  English 
Equivalents 

I  have  a  book. 

His  head  covered  by  a  helmet. 
After   routing    the    army,    Caesar 
went  into  winter  quarters. 


At  your  house. 
How  old  is  John? 
How  are  you  ? 
I  have  a  headache. 


I  am  hungry. 

The  boy  is  good  for  nothing. 
Your  coffee  is  getting  cold. 
How  well  that  dress  fits  her! 


How  are  you? 
At  home. 

Where  do  you  have  your  clothes 
made? 


EXERCISES 
I 

Below  are  a  literal  and  an  idiomatic  translation  of  a  Latin  pas- 
sage. Using  the  following  questions  as  a  guide,  discover  just  what 
changes  have  been  made  which  render  the  idiomatic  version  better 
than  the  literal :  ( i )  Which  translation  has  the  greater  number  of 
sentences?  ( 2 )  Which  seems  the  better  to  you ?  Why?  (3)  Indi- 
cate all  the  awkward  phrases  and  clauses  in  i,  and  show  how  they 
have  been  avoided  in  2. 


REPRODUCTION 


SI 


r.  Literal 

Thither,  about  midnight,  Cajsar, 
employing  the  same  men  as  guides 
who  had  come  as  messengers  from 
Iccius,  sends  for  a  rehef  to  the 
townspeople  Numidian  and  Cretan 
archers  and  Balearic  slingers  ;  at 
whose  arrival  zeal  for  fighting  was 
inspired  in  the  Remi,  with  the 
hope  of  a  defense  ;  and  from  the 
same  cause  the  expectation  of  tak- 
ing the  town  departed  from  the 
enemy.  These,  accordingly,  de- 
laying for  a  little  while  near  the 
town  and  laying  waste  the  fields 
of  the  Remi,  all  the  villages  and 
buildings  to  which  they  had  been 
able  to  approach  being  set  on  fire, 
made  toward  Caesar's  camp  with 
all  their  forces  and  pitched  camp 
less  than  two  miles  off ;  which 
camp,  as  was  shown  by  the  smoke 
and  fires,  was  extending  more 
than  eight  miles  in  breadth. 


2.  Idiomatic 

About  midnight  Caesar,  using 
as  guides  the  messengers  who  had 
come  from  Iccius,  sent  Numidian 
and  Cretan  archers  and  Balearic 
slingers  forward  to  reheve  the 
town.  Their  arrival  brought  the 
Remi  hope  of  defending  them- 
selves, and  inspired  them  to  fight ; 
and  for  the  same  reason  the  enemy 
despaired  of  taking  the  town.  And 
so,  after  delaying  near  the  town  a 
little  while,  to  lay  waste  the  fields 
of  the  Remi  and  to  set  fire  to  all 
the  villages  and  buildings  within 
reach,  they  hastened  with  all  their 
forces  toward  Caesar's  camp  and 
pitched  their  tents  less  than  two 
miles  off.  Their  camp,  as  was  in- 
dicated by  the  smoke  and  fire, 
extended  more  than  eight  miles. 


II 

Select  a  passage  in  one  of  your  foreign-language  texts  and  make 
both  a  literal  and  an  idiomatic  English  translation  of  it.  Arrange 
the  two  versions  of  your  translation  in  parallel  columns  on  the  page. 
Come  to  class  prepared  to  point  out  and  explain  each  detail  in 
which  the  idiomatic  English  translation  is  superior  to  the  literal. 

35.  Second  method :  retelling  by  condensing.  The  second 
method  of  reproducing  another  person's  thought  is  to  condense 
it.  This  method  we  naturally  employ  in  retelling  a  lecture 
or  a  story,  in  reciting  a  lesson,  and  in  writing  an  examination 
paper. 


52  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  first  requirement  in  retelling  by  condensing  is  to  under- 
stand the  subject  thoroughly.  The  second  requirement  is  to 
pick  out  the  main  points.  This  we  often  find  difficult,  for  we 
are  likely  to  be  led  astray  by  something  which  is  not  important. 
To  avoid  this  difficulty,  we  should  follow  the  main  thought 
only,  condensing  each  important  topic  into  one  or  two  concise 
sentences.  We  should  then  arrange  these  in  their  proper  order 
in  the  form  of  an  outline,  which  should  show  clearly  the  subject 
and  the  principal  topics. 

The  value  of  retelling  by  condensing  is  that  it  teaches  us  to 
select  the  really  important  ideas  from  what  we  are  hearing  or 
reading.  Such  ability  is  especially  helpful  in  taking  notes  and 
in  writing  examination  papers.  Condensing  also  shows  us  how 
to  avoid  using  too  many  words  in  expressing  an  idea. 

36.  General  directions  for  retelling  by  condensing,  i.  Read 
and  re-read  the  passage  to  be  condensed  until  you  fully  under- 
stand it.  Notice  the  order  of  topics  and  the  relation  of  one  idea 
to  another,  so  that  in  condensing  the  material  you  will  not  leave 
out  necessary  points  or  put  in  others  that  are  superfluous. 

2.  Try  to  discover  what  points  are  most  important.  Unless 
you  study  the  original  closely,  there  is  danger  that  you  will  write 
too  fully  about  some  topics  and  not  fully  enough  about  others. 

3.  Write  down  the  principal  topics.  Express  them  as  con- 
cisely as  possible  and  arrange  them  in  their  proper  order  by 
means  of  an  outline. 

4.  With  your  outline  before  you,  write  clearly  and  briefly 
what  you  wish  to  say  about  each  topic.  If  you  are  condensing 
poetry,  avoid  any  effect  of  rime  or  any  borrowing  of  the  poet's 
language. 

EXERCISE 

Acccording  to  the  directions  given  above  write  a  condensed  repro- 
duction of  a  topic  discussed  in  your  text  in  history,  civics,  or  history 
of  literature. 


REPRODUCTION  53 

37.  Taking  notes  as  a  means  of  retelling  by  condensing.  One 
of  the  most  valuable  ways  of  retelling  by  condensing  is  taking 
notes  on  what  we  hear  or  read.  We  shall  have  frequent  occasion 
to  make  reports  on  many  subjects,  and  the  sooner  we  begin  to 
take  good  notes,  the  easier  the  work  will  be. 

38.  Taking  notes  on  what  we  read.  When  taking  notes  on 
what  we  read,  we  should  jot  down  only  the  main  points.  We 
should  learn,  moreover,  to  abbreviate  wherever  it  is  possible  by 
omitting  all  unnecessary  words  and  connectives  and  by  using 
letters  for  proper  names  when  these  occur  more  than  once. 
Below  is  a  set  of  notes  made  on  the  first  story  in  Rudyard  Kip- 
ling's "Jungle  Book."  Observe  how  briefly  the  topics  are  worded 
and  yet  how  easily  the  story  can  be  constructed  from  them. 

PUPIL'S  NOTES  ON  THE  STORY 
"Mowgli's  Brothers,"  Kipling's  "Jungle  Book,"  pp.  1-43. 

1.  Shere  Khan  (tiger)  attacks  woodcutter's  fire. 

2.  Cutter's  child  strays — wolf  carries  him  to  den — child  fearless 
among  cubs. 

3.  Tiger  demands  child — wolf  mother  defends  him — names  child 
Mowgli. 

4.  M.  accepted  by  wolf  pack — taught  wolf  lore  by  Baloo  (bear)  and 
Bagheera  (panther). 

5.  10  yrs.  later  tiger  demands  M. — wolf  leader  old — dares  not  re- 
fuse. 

6.  M.  steals  fire  from  woodcutter's  village — beats  tiger  into  sub- 
mission with  blazing  torch. 

In  taking  notes  on  other  forms  of  writing  than  narration  we 
can  often  make  even  more  condensed  notes.  In  all  cases,  how- 
ever, we  should  write  the  name  of  the  author  and  title  of  the 
selection  as  well  as  the  title  of  the  book  and  the  numbers  of  the 
pages  on  which  the  selection  is  printed.  Below  is  a  passage 
from  a  history,  with  greatly  condensed  notes. 


54  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR  (1338-1453) 

Causes  of  the  war.  The  long  and  wasteful  war  between  Eng- 
land and  France  known  in  history  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War  was 
a  most  eventful  one,  and  its  effect  upon  both  England  and  France 
so  important  and  lasting  as  to  give  it  a  prominent  place  in  the  rec- 
ords of  the  closing  events  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  war  with  Scotland  was  one  of  the  things  that  led  up  to  this 
war.  All  through  that  struggle  France,  as  the  old  and  jealous  rival 
of  England,  was  ever  giving  aid  and  encouragement  to  the  Scots. 
Then  the  English  possessions  in  France,  for  which  the  English  king 
owed  homage  to  the  French  sovereign  as  overlord,  were  a  source 
of  constant  dispute  between  the  two  countries.  Trade  jealousies 
also  contributed  to  the  causes  of  mutual  hostility. 

Furthermore,  upon  the  death  of  Charles  IV  of  France,  the  last 
of  the  direct  Capetian  line,  Edward  III  laid  claim  to  the  French 
crown  in  much  the  same  way  that  William  of  Normandy  centuries 
before  had  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of  England. 

PUPIL'S  NOTES  ON  THE  PASSAGE 

Causes  of  loo  yrs.'  War  (1338-1453),  Myers,  "Med.  and 
Mod.  Hist.,"  Revised  Edition,  pp.  186-187. 

1.  War  important  in  effect  on  Eng.  and  Fr. 

2.  Causes: 

a.  War  with  Scotland. 

b.  Eng.  poss.  in  Fr. 

c.  Trade  jealousies. 

d.  Edward  III  (Eng.)  claimed  Fr.  crown, 

39.  General  directions  for  taking  notes  on  what  we  read. 
I.  Read  the  selection  through  rapidly,  but  attentively,  to  get  a 
clear  idea  of  its  contents. 

2.  Read  it  again  more  carefully  for  the  details.  Make  your 
notes  as  you  go  along,  remembering  that  notes  should  be  neither 
so  numerous  as  to  be  confusing  nor  so  jew  as  to  be  misleading. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  make  complete  statements  or  to  give  all 


Photograph  by  White.  N.  Y. 


THE   ilGHT   IN    THE  RIGGING 


REPRODUCTION  55 

the  details.  A  few  well-chosen  catchwords  will  bring  the  se- 
lection back  when  you  come  to  rewrite  it.  These  catchwords 
not  only  save  time  but  also  do  away  with  copying  the  author's 
own  words.  Merely  copying  from  what  you  read  results  in  a 
habit  of  dependence  and  will  make  your  work  uninteresting. 

3.  Number  the  notes  on  each  topic.  Arrange  them  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  clearly  what  are  the  main  topics  and  what  are 
the  details  that  help  to  develop  each  topic.  You  will  notice  that 
most  selections  on  which  your  notes  are  based  are  arranged  in 
groups  of  sentences,  called  paragraphs,  and  that,  as  a  rule,  each 
of  these  groups  deals  with  a  single  topic.  This  arrangement  of 
the  sentences  by  paragraphs  will  be  of  great  use  to  you  when 
you  come  to  select  the  essential  ideas. 

4.  When  you  have  completed  your  notes,  correct  them  by 
comparison  with  the  original  text. 

40.  Taking  notes  on  what  we  hear.  In  taking  notes  on  what 
we  hear  we  should  give  the  closest  attention  both  to  the  sepa- 
rate statements  and  to  their  connection,  that  we  may  under- 
stand them  before  the  speaker  passes  to  something  else.  If  a 
statement  is  not  understood  at  first,  we  lose  its  meaning,  since 
there  is  no  chance  to  hear  it  a  second  time  as  there  would  be  to 
read  it  a  second  time. 

41.  General  directions  for  taking  notes  on  what  we  hear. 
I.  Do  not  become  so  much  absorbed  in  writing  that  you  lose 
half  of  what  is  being  said. 

2.  Get  a  clear  idea  of  the  general  meaning  without  trying  to 
remember  exact  words. 

3.  Make  the  first  draft  of  your  notes  while  the  speech  is  being 
delivered,  but  do  this  in  as  few  words  as  will  give  the  meaning. 

4.  Use  abbreviations  and  catchwords  when  3'ou  are  sure  that 
you  can  remember  what  they  mean. 

5.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  lecture  make  a  second,  more 
complete  draft  of  your  notes. 


56  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 
I 

Read  and  take  notes  on  two  of  the  following  narrative  poems :' 

1.  "In  School-Days"  or  "Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,"  by  Whittier. 

2.  "The  Three  Fishers,"  by  Charles  Kingsley. 

3.  "The  Deacon's  Masterpiece"  or  "The  Last  Leaf,"  by  Holmes. 

4.  "An  Incident  of  the  French  Camp"  or  "How  they  Brought  the 
Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix,"  by  Browning. 

5.  Two  other  narrative  poems  that  you  have  recently  read. 

II 

Read  a  magazine  story  and  make  brief  notes  on  it  that  will  guide 
you  in  retelling  it  in  condensed  form. 

Ill 

Attend  a  lecture  given  in  your  school  or  for  the  general  public, 
and  take  notes  on  what  the  speaker  says.  Follow  the  directions 
given  in  section  41. 

42.  Importance  of  an  outline  in  retelling  by  condensing.   In 

the  selections  that  we  have  read  and  in  the  lectures  that  we 
have  heard,  we  have  noticed  that  each  writer  and  speaker  has 
dealt  with  his  topics  in  some  natural  order  of  time  or  space  or 
has  arranged  them  in  what  seemed  to  him  their  logical  relation 
one  to  another.  In  arranging  his  topics  each  used  some  kind  of 
simple  outline  similar  to  the  outlines  that  we  made  in  the 
preparation  of  our  oral  compositions  (see  section  14). 

Before  we  attempt  to  give  a  condensed  version  of  any  selec- 
tion or  lecture  we  should  reconstruct  the  outline  that  the  writer 
or  speaker  used  in  composing  the  original.  This  we  can  do  if 
we  have  understood  the  original  and  have  taken  good  notes. 
Each  paragraph  or  each  stanza  in  a  selection  that  we  have  read 
should  be  represented  in  our  outline  by  a  topic.   Likewise,  each 


RErRODUCTION  57 

main  point  in  a  lecture  should  be  indicated  by  a  topic.  If  the 
writer  or  speaker  has  made  use  of  a  brief  introduction  and  con- 
clusion, each  of  these  should  be  indicated  in  the  outline  by  an 
appropriate  topic. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Carefully  arrange  in  outline  form  the  notes  that  you  took  on  the 
two  narrative  poems  in  Exercise  I  of  section  41. 

II 

Carefully  arrange  in  outline  form  the  notes  that  you  took  on  the 
lecture  indicated  in  Exercise  III  of  section  41. 

Ill 

According  to  the  directions  given  in  section  39  take  notes  on  the 
following  selections.  Number  the  paragraphs  in  each  consecu- 
tively and  group  your  notes  to  correspond  to  their  respective  para- 
graphs. By  means  of  your  notes  and  a  careful  re-reading  of  each 
paragraph  discover  the  main  topic  of  each  and  arrange  these  topics 
in  the  form  of  an  outline. 

HOW  AN  ALIEN  BECOMES  A  CITIZEN  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

At  the  present  time  who  are  citizens  ?  Who  may  become  citizens  ? 
What  does  citizenship  mean?  The  Constitution  answers  the  first  of 
these  questions  thus:  "All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  state  wherein  they  reside."  But  what  is  natu- 
ralization ?  How  can  one  become  naturalized  ?  And  what  are  the  ad- 
vantages of  naturalization  ? 

Briefly  stated,  naturalization  is  the  process  by  which  a  foreigner 
becomes  a  citizen  of  another  country.  In  the  United  States  two  acts 
are  necessary  to  bring  about  this  change  :  first,  a  formal  renunciation, 
or  giving  up,  of  allegiance  or  loyalty  to  one's  former  country  or  ruler ; 


58  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  second,  a  solemn  declaration  of  allegiance,  or  loyalty,  to  the  United 
States.  That  is,  on  becoming  naturalized  one  must  deny  from  hence- 
forth all  obedience  to  his  native  land  and  its  rulers  and  become  a  loyal 
citizen  of  America.  By  the  process  of  naturalization  he  becomes,  for 
all  practical  purposes,  as  much  a  citizen  or  member  of  our  country  as 
if  he  had  been  born  under  the  shadow  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

A  foreigner  can  be  naturalized  only  by  a  Federal,  state,  or  territorial 
court  of  record.  At  the  time  of  his  application  he  must  be  at  least 
eighteen  years  of  age.  He  may  then  take  out  his  "first  papers."  To 
do  so  he  must  declare  before  the  court  his  intention  of  becoming  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  and  of  renouncing  his  allegiance  to  any 
foreign  country  or  ruler.  Not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  seven  years 
later  he  may  appear  in  court  and,  on  condition  that  he  has  reached  the 
age  of  twenty-one  and  has  been  for  five  years  a  resident  of  the  United 
States,  may  submit  a  petition  in  which  he  gives  his  full  name,  place  of 
residence,  occupation,  date  and  place  of  birth,  place  from  which  he 
emigrated,  and  certain  other  information.  This  petition  must  be  signed 
by  himself  and  by  two  reliable  witnesses  who  are  American  citizens  and 
who  must  testify  that  they  have  known  him  for  five  years  and  that  he 
is  of  good  moral  character.  He  must  also  declare  that  he  is  not  opposed 
to  organized  government,  that  he  does  not  believe  in  polygamy,  that  he 
renounces  forever  any  hereditary  title  he  may  possess,  and  that  he  in- 
tends to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  The  court  cannot  grant 
a  certificate  of  naturalization,  or  "second  papers,"  until  ninety  days 
after  the  petition  has  been  filed  nor  within  thirty  days  before  a  gen- 
eral election. 

Aliens  must  be  able  to  read  and  write  English  before  they  can  be 
naturalized,  and  they  must  pass  an  examination  in  such  subjects  as 
American  history,  civics,  and  geography.  There  are  some  exceptions  to 
the  requirements  just  given,  but  owing  to  their  rare  occurrence  or  unim- 
portance they  do  not  need  to  be  discussed  here. — Howard  Copeland 
Hill,  "Community  Life  and  Civic  Problems" 

IGNORANCE  IN  ANIMALS 

The  animals  unite  such  ignorance  with  such  apparent  knowledge,  such 
stupidity  with  such  cleverness,  that  in  our  estimate  of  them  we  are 
likely  to  rate  their  wit  either  too  high  or  too  low.  With  them,  knowledge 
does  not  fade  into  ignorance,  as  it  does  in  man ;  the  contrast  is  like 


REPRODUCTION  59 

that  between  night  and  day,  with  no  twilight  between.  So  keen  one 
moment,  so  blind  the  next ! 

Think  of  the  ignorance  of  the  horse  after  all  his  long  association 
with  man ;  of  the  trifling  things  along  the  street  at  which  he  will  take 
fright,  till  he  rushes  off  in  a  wild  panic  of  fear,  endangering  his  own  neck 
and  the  neck  of  his  driver.  One  would  think  that  if  he  had  a  particle  of 
sense  he  would  know  that  an  old  hat  or  a  bit  of  paper  was  harmless. 
But  fear  is  deeply  implanted  in  his  nature  ;  it  has  saved  the  lives  of  his 
ancestors  countless  times,  and  it  is  still  one  of  his  ruling  passions. 

I  have  known  a  cow  to  put  her  head  between  two  trees  in  the  woods 
—  a  kind  of  natural  stanchion — and  not  have  wit  enough  to  get  it  out 
again,  though  she  could  have  done  so  at  once  by  lifting  her  head  to  a 
horizontal  position.  But  the  best  instance  I  know  of  the  grotesque  igno- 
rance of  a  cow  is  given  by  Hamerton  in  his  "Chapters  on  Animals." 
The  cow  would  not  "give  down"  her  milk  unless  she  had  her  calf 
before  her.  But  her  calf  had  died,  so  the  herdsman  took  the  skin  of  the 
calf,  stuffed  it  with  hay,  and  stood  it  up  before  the  inconsolable 
mother.  Instantly  she  proceeded  to  lick  it  and  to  yield  her  milk.  One 
day,  in  licking  it,  she  ripped  open  the  seams,  and  out  rolled  the  hay. 
This  the  mother  at  once  proceeded  to  eat,  without  any  look  of  surprise 
or  alarm.  She  liked  hay  herself,  her  acquaintance  with  it  was  of  long 
standing,  and  what  more  natural  to  her  than  that  her  calf  should  turn 
out  to  be  made  of  hay !  Yet  this  very  cow  that  did  not  know  her  calf 
from  a  bale  of  hay  would  have  defended  her  young  against  the  attack 
of  a  bear  or  a  wolf  in  the  most  skillful  and  heroic  manner ;  and  the 
horse  that  was  nearly  frightened  out  of  its  skin  by  a  white  stone,  or 
by  the  flutter  of  a  piece  of  newspaper  by  the  roadside,  would  find  its 
way  back  home  over  a  long  stretch  of  country,  or  find  its  way  to  water 
in  the  desert,  with  a  certainty  you  or  I  could  not  approach. 

The  hen  hawk  that  the  farm  boy  finds  so  difficult  to  approach  with  his 
gun  will  yet  alight  upon  his  steel  trap  fastened  to  the  top  of  a  pole  in  the 
fields.  The  rabbit  that  can  be  so  easily  caught  in  a  snare  or  in  a  bo.x  trap 
will  yet  conceal  its  nest  and  young  in  the  most  ingenious  manner.  Where 
instinct  or  inherited  knowledge  can  come  into  play,  the  animals  are  very 
wise,  but  new  conditions,  new  problems,  bring  out  their  ignorance. 

A  college  girl  told  me  an  incident  of  a  red  squirrel  she  had  observed 
at  her  home  in  Iowa,  that  illustrates  how  shallow  the  wit  of  a  squirrel 
is  when  confronted  by  new  conditions.  This  squirrel  carried  nuts  all 
day  and  stored  them  in  the  end  of  a  drain  pipe  that  discharged  the 


6o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

rain  water  upon  the  pavement  below.  The  nuts  obeyed  the  same  law 
that  the  rain  water  did,  and  all  rolled  through  the  pipe  and  fell  upon 
the  sidewalk.  In  the  squirrel's  experience,  and  in  that  of  his  forbears, 
all  holes  upon  the  ground  were  stopped  at  the  far  end,  or  they  were  like 
pockets,  and  if  nuts  were  put  in  them  they  stayed  there.  A  hollow  tube 
open  at  both  ends,  that  would  not  hold  nuts — this  was  too  much  for  the 
wit  of  the  squirrel.   But  how  wise  he  is  about  the  nuts  themselves ! 

Among  the  lower  animals  the  ignorance  of  one  is  the  ignorance  of 
all,  and  the  knowledge  of  one  is  the  knowledge  of  all,  in  a  sense  in  which 
the  same  is  not  true  among  men.  Of  course  some  are  more  stupid  than 
others  of  the  same  species,  but  probably,  on  the  one  hand,  there  are  no 
idiots  among  them,  and,  on  the  other,  none  is  preeminent  in  wit. — 
John  Burroughs,  "Ways  of  Nature"^ 

43.  Examination  another  means  of  retelling  by  condensing. 

Nowhere  is  there  greater  need  of  careful  writing  than  in  an- 
swering examination  questions.  Throughout  our  whole  school 
life  we  are  apt  to  waste  valuable  time  and  fail  to  do  ourselves 
justice  unless  we  train  ourselves  in  this  special  form  of  composi- 
tion. We  should  take  pains,  therefore,  to  acquire  skill  in  this 
form  of  writing  early  in  our  school  career. 

44.  General  directions  for  writing  examination  papers.  Ex- 
amination questions  vary  greatly,  and  individual  teachers  differ 
in  their  personal  preferences  as  to  the  form  of  the  work.  For 
this  reason,  only  the  most  general  principles  are  stated  here. 
Detailed  instructions  will  be  given  by  your  teacher. 

1.  After  reading  a  question  think  over  your  facts  before  you 
begin  to  write.  If  you  have  five  minutes  in  which  to  answer 
each  question,  use  two  minutes  of  the  time  in  thinking.  By 
thinking  is  meant,  in  this  case,  collecting  your  ideas  on  a  given 
point,  discarding  the  unimportant  ideas,  and  properly  connect- 
ing the  others.  These  three  steps  can  be  taken  rapidly  if  the  ques- 
tions are  definitely  stated  and  you  are  familiar  with  the  subject. 

2.  Arrange  your  statements  in  logical  order. 

1  Used  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


REPRODUCTION  6i 

a.  Sometimes  the  answer  to  an  examination  question  is  best 
given  in  the  form  of  a  condensed  statement.    For  example: 

Question.   What  are  the  qualities  necessary  for  good  notes  ? 
Answer.    Good  notes  should  be  brief,  clear,  and  orderly  in  their 
arrangement. 

^.  If  the  question  requires  for  its  answer  a  fuller  statement, 
make  a  list  of  the  principal  topics  that  you  are  to  write  about 
and  arrange  them  in  order.    For  example : 

Question.  Write  an  account  of  your  favorite  character  in  a  novel 
you  have  recently  read. 

In  answering  this  question  you  should  write  on  the  following 
topics,  making  from  each  a  separate  group  of  sentences,  or  a 
paragraph :  ( i )  the  name  of  my  favorite  character  and  the  part 
he  plays  in  the  story;  (2)  his  chief  characteristics;  (3)  one  or 
two  important  incidents  in  the  story  that  illustrate  these 
characteristics. 

3.  Make  your  sentences  brief  and  to  the  point.  Long  sen- 
tences are  apt  to  become  involved.  Stringing  words  together 
for  the  sake  of  filling  up  space  results  in  poor  work  and  seldom 
deceives  the  teacher.  Choose  your  words  so  carefully  that  every 
one  counts.  In  your  effort  to  secure  brevity  do  not  sacrifice 
accuracy  or  clearness  of  thought  or  expression. 

4.  It  ought  to  be  unnecessary  to  add  that  in  every  examina- 
tion paper,  whether  in  English  or  in  any  other  subject,  the 
writing,  the  grammar,  the  spelling,  the  capitalization,  and  the 
punctuation  should  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible. 

EXERCISE 

Answer  the  following  examination  questions^  observing  the  di- 
rections given  in  section  44  : 

I.  Comment  on  the  character  of  the  hero  in  a  story  you  have 
recently  read. 


62  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  best  incident  in  that  story. 

3.  Mention  instances  where  the  characters  show  any  of  the 
following  qualities : 

a.  Courage.  d.  Miserliness.  g.  Cruelty. 

b.  Cowardice.  e.  Cleverness.  h.  Generosity. 

c.  Slyness.  /.  Patriotism.  i.  Nobility. 

4.  What  kind  of  story  do  you  like  to  read  ? 

45.  Third  method :  retelling  by  expanding.  The  third  method 
of  retelling  another  person's  thought  is  to  expand  it.  By  this 
process  the  thought  of  another  is  amplified,  his  story  or  de- 
scription elaborated  and  made  more  vivid,  by  means  of  details 
originally  omitted  or  merely  suggested.  Here  we  are  called 
upon  to  make  liberal  use  of  our  own  knowledge  and  to  give 
free  play  to  our  imagination,  but  the  additional  matter  should 
not  be  inconsistent  or  improbable  with  respect  to  the  original. 

Proverbs,  epigrams,  and  similar  concise  statements  of  prac- 
tical wisdom  usually  require  no  elaboration.  In  fables,  alle- 
gories, and  parables,  however,  we  frequently  find  such  a  maxim 
as  ''Honesty  is  the  best  policy"  or  "Virtue  is  its  own  reward'* 
amplified  by  means  of  concrete  details  which  show  the  applica- 
tion of  this  principle  to  everyday  life.  Poetry,  which  in  general 
is  more  concise  than  prose,  is  often  better  understood  if  it  is 
liberally  paraphrased  and  expanded. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  example  of  retelling  by  expanding 
is  to  be  found  in  the  daily  newspaper.  News  stories  dealing 
with  other  than  local  events  are  based  on  brief  telegraphic 
dispatches  which  contain  nothing  but  a  few  bare  facts.  Until 
a  writer  on  the  newspaper  staff  expands  these  facts  by  adding 
amplifying  details  that  will  give  them  life  and  reality,  they  are 
colorless  and  uninteresting  to  the  reading  public.  A  compari- 
son of  the  brief  news  dispatches  on  the  bulletin  board  of  a 
newspaper  office  and  the  complete  news  stories  printed  in  the 


REPRODUCTION  63 

issue  of  the  paper  that  follows  will  show  how  much  has  been 
added  in  the  expanding  process. 

46.  Value  of  retelling  by  expanding.  Retelling  by  expand- 
ing is  of  great  value,  because  it  constitutes  an  important  step 
toward  original  composition.  We  develop  in  our  own  way  the 
ideas  suggested  by  another.  It  is  like  taking  a  pencil  sketch 
which  somebody  else  has  made  and  producing  from  it  a  finished 
picture,  using  our  own  taste  as  to  colors  and  tones,  lights 
and  shades. 

47.  General  directions  for  retelling  by  expanding,  i.  Read 
carefully  several  times  the  sentence,  the  brief  notes,  or  the 
passage  to  be  expanded,  to  discover  exactly  what  the  writer  has 
said.  First  of  all,  get  the  author's  meaning. 

2.  Make  an  orderly  list  of  all  the  points  that  the  author  has 
included. 

3.  jNIake  a  list  of  the  interesting  points  and  details  that  he 
has  omitted.  Try  to  supply  whatever  of  importance  the  orig- 
inal passage  leaves  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader. 

4.  From  the  two  lists  make  the  outline  from  which  you  in- 
tend to  write. 

5.  Expand  each  main  topic  into  a  paragraph.  Use  the  best 
words  at  your  command,  carefully  avoiding  the  exact  forms  of 
expression  used  in  the  original  passage. 

6.  Read  over  w'hat  you  have  written,  to  see  whether  you  have 
said  too  much  about  one  topic  or  not  enough  about  another. 
Improve  any  paragraphs  that  need  revising. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Bring  to  class  a  list  of  news  briefs  copied  from  the  bulletin  board 
of  a  local  newspaper,  and  with  it  bring  a  printed  news  story  in 
which  one  of  these  briefs  has  been  expanded.  Be  prepared  to  point 
out  just  how  much  was  added  by  the  newspaper  writer. 


64  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Read  one  of  the  parables  in  the  New  Testament,  and  be  prepared 
to  state  in  a  sentence  the  principal  thought  that  was  expanded  and 
illustrated  concretely  by  the  details  of  the  parable. 

Ill 

Read  a  fable  and  point  out  the  central  thought  illustrated  by  it. 
Show  how  this  thought  was  made  more  emphatic  and  interesting 
by  being  expanded. 

IV 

Suppose  that  you  are  a  newspaper  writer.  Using  the  scant  de- 
tails given  in  one  of  the  following  groups,  expand  them  into  a  news 
article  of  two  hundred  words  or  more : 

1.  Our  team  won  meet  by  seven  points.  Allston  Academy  second 
place.  Brighton  High  School  third.  Hanson  won  eleven  points.  Carder 
broke  two-twenty  record.  Our  boys  lords  of  the  town.  Home  Sunday 
evening. 

2.  Train  hits  automobile  at  Lewiston  crossing.  Hiram  Dodge,  wife, 
and  nephew  killed.  Mrs.  Dodge's  sister  fatally  injured.  Baby  and  dog 
unhurt.  Family  on  the  way  to  county  high-school  meet.  Nephew  a 
contestant. 

3.  Couple  eloping  in  stolen  car  caught  by  girl's  father  and  her 
jilted  suitor.  Girl  refuses  to  return  home  with  her  father.  Begs  offi- 
cers to  give  her  cell  in  jail,  as  they  had  given  her  lover.  Car  being 
held  for  owner. 

4.  Cyclone  hits  Amesbury.  Ten  known  dead.  Thirteen  missing. 
More  than  a  hundred  injured.  Many  families  homeless.  Property  loss 
over  five  miUion.  River  reached  maximum  at  six  this  morning.  Dam 
safe  if  no  more  rain  falls.  City  without  lights  and  water.  Mayor  calls 
for  aid. 

5.  Miss  Isabel  Hightower  dead  at  age  of  eighty-seven.  Leaves 
house  to  historical  society.  Large  collection  of  interesting  family  relics. 
House  built  in  1760.  Lover  killed  in  Civil  War.  Miss  Hightower  active 
in  Red  Cross  work  during  World  War.  Leaves  Gordon  Bryce,  nephew, 
senior  in  medical  college,  all  her  money. 


REPRODUCTION  65 


Expand  one  of  the  following  sentences  into  a  composition  of 
one  page : 

1.  It  seemed  that  luck  was  against  our  team  from  the  very  start. 

2.  Never  in  all  my  life  had  I  dreamed  that  such  an  opportunity  would 
ever  be  mine. 

3.  If  I  win  the  hundred-dollar  prize  in  the  title  contest,  I  know 
exactly  how  I  shall  spend  it. 

4.  The  view  from  my  front  window  is  more  beautiful  in  autumn 
than  in  spring. 

5.  None  of  us  had  ever  thought  of  Uncle  John's  taking  such  a  step 
at  his  age. 

48.  Summary.  The  ability  to  express  ourselves  accurately 
and  effectively  in  writing,  as  well  as  in  speech,  is  fundamental 
to  our  success  in  life.  By  welcoming  every  opportunity  for 
writing  we  may  increase  our  skill  in  written  expression. 

Written  composition  differs  from  oral  composition  in  two 
principal  respects:  it  is  more  deliberately  composed  and  it  is 
slightly  more  formal.  In  subject  matter  the  two  types  are 
closely  akin. 

Good  form  is  highly  important  in  written  composition.  Close 
attention  should  be  given  to  grammar,  spelling,  capitalization, 
punctuation,  margins,  and  indentations.  All  written  work 
should  be  neat  and  legible. 

There  are  three  essentials  of  effective  composition :  ( i )  We 
must  have  something  to  say.  (2)  We  must  have  some  idea  of 
how  we  wish  to  say  it.  (3)  We  must  practice  the  different  forms 
of  expression  until  we  can  say  it  well.  Familiar  subjects  are  al- 
ways the  best.  Mental  alertness  is  a  necessary  characteristic 
of  every  person  who  wishes  to  find  interesting  subjects. 

Heading  the  work  of  reputable  writers  will  increase  our  knowl- 
edge. By  means  of  wide  reading  in  good  literature  we  may  un- 
consciously improve  our  own  manner  of  expressing  our  thoughts. 


66  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Conscious  imitation  and  emulation  of  experienced  speakers 
and  writers  will  render  our  approach  to  original  composition- 
writing  natural  and  easy.  By  such  a  process  Lincoln,  Franklin, 
and  Stevenson  taught  themselves  to  think  and  to  write  more 
clearly.  Reproducing  the  thoughts  of  others  affords  valuable 
self-cultivation  in  English.  Retelling  the  thoughts  expressed 
by  another  cultivates  in  us  accuracy  in  hearing  and  in  reading. 

Retelling  closely  teaches  us  exactness  in  thinking  and  in 
writing,  helps  us  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  the  best  speakers 
and  writers,  and  enlarges  our  vocabulary.  Translation  is  most 
useful  in  increasing  our  ability  to  use  the  English  language 
correctly. 

Retelling  by  condensing  helps  us  to  select  essential  ideas,  to 
connect  them  properly,  and  to  express  them  concisely  and 
forcefully.  We  find  this  form  of  writing  especially  useful  in 
taking  notes,  in  making  outlines,  and  in  writing  examination 
papers. 

Expanding  another  person's  thought  allows  us  to  supply  the 
omitted  details.  In  this  process  we  are  taking  a  long  and  im- 
portant final  step  in  our  approach  to  original  composition- 
writing. 

In  expressing  our  own  thoughts  we  should  apply  the  princi- 
ples that  we  have  learned  from  retelling  the  thoughts  of  others. 
We  can  obtain  ideas  through  reading,  observation,  and  thinking. 
We  can  acquire  accuracy  and  ease  of  expression  by  practice  in 
writing. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION 

49.  Approach  to  original  composition.  The  study  of  oral 
composition  has  prepared  us  in  three  ways  for  writing  original 
compositions.  First,  we  have  learned  something  about  choos- 
ing a  subject  that  we  are  capable  of  making  clear  and  interesting 
to  others.  Secondly,  we  have  had  practice  in  selecting  necessary 
material  and  in  arranging  it  by  means  of  a  simple  outline. 
Lastly,  we  have  acquired  some  skill  in  presenting  our  subjects 
effectively  in  talks  before  our  classmates. 

From  our  practice  in  reproducing  another  person's  thought 
we  have  learned  that  any  piece  of  writing,  to  be  of  value,  must 
contain  a  carefully  developed  thought.  In  retelling  closely  and 
in  condensing  what  others  have  said  and  written  we  have  de- 
pended wholly  upon  them  for  the  thoughts  for  our  compositions. 
Likewise  we  have  followed  their  arrangement  of  topics,  so  that 
in  each  case  we  have  had  only  to  discover  their  outline,  instead 
of  constructing  one  of  our  own.  Both  of  these  methods  of  re- 
telling have  demanded  chiefly  that  we  first  understand  the  au- 
thor's thought  and  then  find  words  of  our  own  to  express  it 
accurately.  Incidentally,  however,  we  have  had  the  opportunity 
to  observe  how  more  experienced  speakers  and  writers  arrange 
their  topics  and  express  their  thoughts.  We  have  alsc  had  oc- 
casion to  increase  our  vocabularies  to  some  extent,  to  improve 
ourselves  in  written  expression,  and  to  learn  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of  our  composition  on  paper. 

In  expanding  another  person's  thought  we  have  taken  the 
final  step  in  our  approach  to  original  composition.  Already  we 
have  found  it  necessary  to  employ  a  number  of  our  individual 

67 


68  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ideas.  In  many  instances  we  have  had  to  construct  our  own 
outlines  from  the  scant  material  that  has  been  provided  us. 
More  and  more  we  have  been  learning  to  depend  on  ourselves. 
If  we  have  thus  far  made  good  use  of  our  opportunities  for 
practice  in  oral  and  written  expression,  we  shall  find  the  plan- 
ning and  writing  of  original  compositions  comparatively  easy 
and  natural. 

50.  Requirements  of  a  good  composition.  When  we  write 
letters  or  more  formal  compositions,  we  do  not  write  them 
chiefly  to  amuse  ourselves  but  to  let  others  know  what  we  have 
experienced  and  what  we  are  thinking  about.  It  is  true,  if  we 
have  spent  a  happy  vacation,  heard  some  interesting  bit  of 
news,  or  read  an  entertaining  new  book,  we  find  real  pleasure  in 
writing  to  our  friends  about  it ;  but  our  main  purpose  is  to  make 
others  understand  and  feel  interested  in  what  we  say.  How 
may  we  make  sure  that  our  friends  will  understand  and  feel  an 
interest  in  our  writing?  If  they  are  to  understand,  we  must 
express  ourselves  clearly.  If  they  are  to  feel  interested,  we 
must  put  spirit,  liveliness,  and  vigor  into  what  we  say.  How  to 
be  clear,  then,  and  how  to  be  forceful — these  are  the  things  we 
must  learn  first  of  all, 

51.  Steps  in  planning  a  composition.  In  planning  a  compo- 
sition that  shall  be  both  clear  and  forceful  three  steps  are  es- 
sential: (i)  the  choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject;  (2)  the 
selection  of  necessary  material;  (3)  the  careful  arrangement  of 
this  material  by  means  of  an  outline, 

52.  Choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject.  If  the  writing  of 
compositions  is  to  prove  profitable  and  enjoyable,  we  must  at 
all  times  exercise  care  in  choosing  our  subjects.  Otherwise 
we  shall  find  ourselves  handicapped  from  the  very  outset,  and 
writing  will  become  a  burdensome  task. 

The  first  requirement  of  a  good  subject  is  that  it  shall  be 
one  in  which  we  are  personally  interested.  Naturally  we  must 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  69 

already  have  a  considerable  knowledge  of  such  a  subject  and 
be  able  to  learn  something  more  about  it  if  necessary. 

The  second  requirement  is  that  it  shall  not  be  too  broad  or 
general  a  subject,  such  as  "Automobiles,"  "Newspapers," 
"Education,"  or  "Outdoor  Sports."  We  shall  find  it  impossible 
to  write  clearly  and  forcefully  about  such  large  subjects  as 
these,  for  we  lack  both  the  necessary  information  and  the  space 
for  their  adequate  treatment.  It  is  possible,  however,  for  us  to 
derive  a  properly  limited  subject  from  each  of  these.  For  ex- 
ample, we  may  have  little  difficulty  in  v/riting  successfully  on 
one  or  more  of  the  following  more  definite  subjects:  "How  we 
Earned  our  Car,"  "The  Making  of  a  School  Paper,"  "Why  I 
Desire  a  College  Education,"  or  "My  Favorite  Outdoor  Sport." 
By  selecting  a  properly  limited  subject  and  presenting  the  de- 
tails of  it  in  specific  language  we  shall  usually  be  able  to  in- 
terest our  readers,  whereas  we  shall  fail  utterly  in  our  attempt 
if  we  carelessly  choose  a  large  subject  and  make  only  a  few 
vague,  general  statements  about  it.  A  good  subject  should,  of 
course,  also  have  enough  value  in  itself  to  justify  the  time  spent 
in  thinking  and  writing  about  it.  (Read  again  what  is  said  in 
section  12  about  the  choice  of  a  subject.) 

53.  Choice  of  the  title.  Although  the  subject  may  be  definite, 
the  choice  of  a  title,  or  the  exact  words  in  which  the  subject  is 
to  be  expressed,  is  sometimes  difficult.  If  the  real  subject  is 
kept  clearly  in  mind  during  the  writing,  it  is  often  convenient 
and  even  desirable  to  reserve  the  final  wording  of  the  title  until 
the  composition  is  finished.  As  a  rule,  the  title  should  be  short. 
It  may  be  so  exact  as  to  suggest  in  a  single  phrase  the  central 
idea  of  the  writer.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  composition  is 
humorous  or  highly  imaginative,  or  for  any  reason  is  intended 
to  keep  the  mind  of  the  reader  in  suspense,  the  title  may  be 
such  as  to  arouse  the  reader's  curiosity.  In  the  latter  case  the 
title  must  be  one  that  will  prove  to  be  really  appropriate  and 


70  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

one  that  is  not  sensational.  "Treasure  Island"  is  a  better  title 
for  Stevenson's  story  than  "The  Sea  Cook,"  which  he  first  chose, 
for  it  suggests  the  search  for  treasure  and  the  voyage  to  the 
island.  "Getting  the  Night  News"  is  a  better  title  than  "The 
Work  in  a  Newspaper  Office  at  Night,"  for  it  suggests  activ- 
ity connected  with  an  interesting  process  and  it  appeals  to  the 
reader's  curiosity. 

EXERCISES 

I 

From  the  following  general  subjects  derive  limited  subjects  that 
would  be  suitable  for  compositions  of  about  six  hundred  words: 

1.  Transportation.  7.  Domestic  Science. 

2.  Inventions.  8.  Athletics. 

3.  Climate.  9.  Famous  Women. 

4.  Insects.  10.  Landscape   Gardening. 

5.  Vacations.  11.  Fashions. 

6.  Physical  Culture.  12.  Aeroplanes. 

II 

Make  a  list  of  five  limited  composition  subjects  from  each  of 
the  following  sources: 

1.  Your  own  experience. 

2.  Your  observation  of  other  people. 

3.  Your  observation  of  nature. 

4.  Your  knowledge  of  various  kinds  of  business. 

5.  Your  reading. 

Ill 

Bring  to  class  a  list  of  titles  of  books,  stories,  essays,  poems,  or 
magazine  articles  that  you  consider  well  chosen.  Be  prepared  to 
defend  your  choice. 

54.  Point  of  view.  When  we  have  made  a  final  selection  of 
the  subject  on  which  we  wish  to  write,  we  should  next  decide  on 
our  point  of  view.    This  may  include  ( i )  our  position  with  re- 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  71 

spect  to  the  object  or  scene  described  ;  (2)  the  time  at  which  we 
view  an  object  or  scene,  or  the  time  at  which  an  action  that  we 
are  about  to  narrate  occurred;  or  (3)  our  mental  attitude  and 
dominant  interest,  that  is,  our  personal  point  of  view.  In  addi- 
tion, point  of  view  usually  includes  the  tense  of  the  main  verbs 
— most  often  the  present,  past,  or  past-perfect  tense— and  the 
person,  whether  first  or  third,  in  which  we  think  best  to  write 
our  composition.  Having  chosen  our  point  of  view,  we  should 
hold  firmly  to  it  throughout  our  composition ;  otherwise  we 
shall  fail  to  write  clearly. 

In  description  and  in  narration  a  definite  point  of  view  in 
space  and  time  is  always  essential  to  clearness.  Suppose  that 
we  have  decided  to  write  a  composition  entitled  ''The  Concert 
on  the  River."  Unless  we  have  clearly  in  mind  our  point  of 
view,  we  shall  have  difficulty  in  outlining  the  main  headings ; 
the  beginning,  as  well  as  the  entire  composition,  will  more  than 
likely  be  hazy  and  confusing.  We  might  easily  be  guilty  of  such 
an  absurd  outline  as  the  following : 

THE  CONCERT  ON  THE  RWER 

1.  Description  of  the  canoes  and  the  orchestra  (from  a  position  in 
one  of  the  canoes). 

2.  The  pleasure  of  canoeing  and  listening  to  music. 

3.  How  the  music  sounded  (from  a  position  on  the  bluff). 

4.  The  appearance  of  the  canoes  (from  a  position  at  the  edge  of  the 
water). 

5.  The  program  played  by  the  orchestra  (heard  from  two  different 
positions). 

6.  The  end  of  the  concert  and  the  departure  of  the  canoes  (from  a 
position  in  one  of  the  canoes). 

The  absurdity  of  thus  shifting  the  point  of  view  is  too  mani- 
fest to  need  comment.  A  composition  written  by  such  an  out- 
line would  simply  confuse  and  disgust  a  reader.    If,  at  the 


72  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

outset,  we  had  decided  to  write  from  one  point  of  view— a  posi- 
tion either  in  one  of  the  canoes  or  on  the  bluff— and  had  kept 
this  point  of  view  throughout,  our  whole  composition  would 
easily  have  assumed  an  orderly,  unified  form.  Or  we  might 
have  changed  from  our  first  point  of  view  to  another,  if  we  had 
been  careful  to  inform  our  readers  of  the  change.  It  is  highly 
important,  therefore,  that  we  should  at  all  times  keep  clearly  in 
mind  our  point  of  view,  whether  stationary  or  changing,  and 
that  we  should  indicate  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  obvious 
to  the  reader. 

In  writing  narration  we  should  inform  the  reader  of  the  time 
point  of  view  at  the  beginning  of  our  story.  If  the  time  changes 
later,  we  should  indicate  such  change. 

In  writing  exposition  and  argument  we  should  adopt  the 
first-person  or  third-person  point  of  view,  decide  upon  the  ap- 
propriate tense,— present,  past,  or  past  perfect,— and  avoid 
changing  these. 

55.  Selection  of  material.  Suppose  that  our  family  has  re- 
cently purchased  an  automobile  with  money  earned  by  all  the 
members  of  the  family  for  that  purpose.  We  shall  naturally 
be  inclined  to  choose  as  the  subject  of  our  first  original  com- 
position ''How  we  Earned  our  Car."  Our  intimate  knowledge 
of  this  subject  affords  us  an  abundance  of  material,  and  we  are 
eager  to  begin  writing  at  once.  If  we  were  writing  a  letter  to  a 
relative  or  a  friend  telling  him  how  we  earned  our  car,  we  might 
be  able  to  give  him  a  fairly  clear  account  of  the  process  without 
stopping  to  select  our  material  or  arrange  it  according  to  the 
best  plan.  But,  since  we  are  writing  for  a  large  group  of  gen- 
eral readers  who  do  not  know  us  or  our  family,  we  shall  need 
to  make  a  more  careful  selection  of  material  and  arrange  it  in 
proper  order. 

At  the  top  of  a  sheet  of  paper  let  us  write  the  title  represent- 
ing our  subject,  and  below  it  jot  down  all  the  ideas  about  our 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  73 

subject  that  present  themselves.  These  ideas  we  may  indicate 
by  means  of  catchwords,  phrases,  or  sentences.  Since  they  come 
thick  and  fast,  we  should  write  rapidly  so  that  none  may  escape. 
Such  a  list  of  topics  as  the  following  may  be  the  result: 


HOW  WE  EARNED  OUR  CAR 

1.  Our  New  Year's  plan. 

2.  Father  unable  to  buy  a  car  the  year  before. 

3.  Advantages  of  having  a  car.    (x) 

4.  Mother's  illness.    (  ?) 

5.  New  roof  on  the  house.    ( ?) 

6.  All  our  neighbors  had  cars. 

7.  Our  disappointment  Christmas  before  last. 

8.  Mother  chosen  treasurer. 

9.  Many  family  discussions  as  to  best  car  to  buy.    (?) 

10.  Father's  small  increase  in  salary. 

11.  We  paid  mother  a  dollar  a  week  as  salary. 

12.  Uncle  Frank  sent  me  a  pig. 

13.  Father  quit  smoking  and  walked  home  from  work. 

14.  I  tried  selling  papers. 

15.  Fattened  my  pig  and  sold  him. 

16.  Hated  to  sell  him.    (x) 

17.  Mother's  needlework  prize. 

18.  Mary  clerked  for  Miss  Cartwright. 

19.  Father  taught  in  night  school. 

20.  Tom  mowed  lawns  and  spaded  flower  beds. 

21.  Mother  hired  Mary  and  me  on  a  commission. 

22.  Mother  sold  preserves  and  jelly. 

23.  Tom  worked  for  construction  company. 

24.  He  clerked  on  Saturdays  for  Mr.  Morse. 

25.  Our  weekly  report  to  mother. 

26.  Mother  put  money  in  savings  bank. 

27.  None  of  us  knew  how  much  the  other  had. 

28.  I  picked  fruit  for  the  neighbors. 

29.  Mother  sold  home  products. 

30.  She  paid  me  for  delivering  them. 

31.  Mary  sold  jelly  for  mother  at  Miss  Cartwright's. 


74  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

32.  Mother's  report  as  treasurer. 

33.  Mother  surprised  us  all. 

34.  Grandfather's  unexpected  check.    (  ?) 

35.  All  went  with  father  to  buy  the  car. 

36.  Money  left  over.    (?) 

37.  Father's  remark  as  we  rode  home. 

38.  Going  to  grandfather's  last  summer  in  the  car.    (x) 

39.  Tom  arrested  for  speeding,    (x) 

40.  When  we  thought  the  car  was  stolen,    (x) 

56.  Arranging  material  by  means  of  an  outline.  Though  the 
list  that  we  have  made  may  contain  all  the  ideas  related  to  our 
subject  that  we  shall  need,  it  is  for  two  important  reasons  not 
an  outline.  First  of  all,  as  we  examine  our  list  we  shall  discover 
several  topics  that  are  not  closely  connected  with  our  subject. 
Secondly,  our  topics  are  arranged  in  no  definite  order,  and  all 
topics  appear  to  be  of  the  same  importance.  If  we  should  write 
a  composition  from  this  list  as  it  stands,  our  readers  would  get 
only  a  very  confused  idea  of  our  subject.  They  would  doubtless 
put  our  composition  aside  unread  as  soon  as  they  found  that  we 
did  not  know  how  to  select  our  material  or  how  to  group  it 
effectively.  Before  we  attempt  to  write,  therefore,  we  should 
construct  an  outline.  In  choosing  and  in  arranging  our  topics 
properly  we  should  be  guided  by  the  three  fundamental  laws  of 
composition-building;  namely,  the  law  of  unity,  the  law  of 
coherence,  and  the  law  of  emphasis. 

57.  The  law  of  unity.  The  law  of  unity  requires  that  all 
topics  in  a  composition  be  directly  related  to  the  subject  and 
that  all  topics  necessary  to  a  clear  presentation  of  the  subject 
be  included. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  revise  our  list  of  topics  according  to 
the  law  of  unity.  At  the  very  outset  we  should  remind  our- 
selves that  our  subject  is  "How  we  Earned  our  Car,"  not  the 
more  general  subject  ''Our  Family  Car."   Let  us  examine  each 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  75 

topic  in  order  to  determine  whether  it  is  closely  related  to  our 
subject.  After  each  one  that  is  not  directly  concerned  with 
the  subject  let  us  place  the  symbol  (x).  After  each  one  that 
seems  somewhat  distantly  related  to  the  subject  let  us  place  the 
symbol  ( ?).  When  we  look  back  over  our  list  we  discover  that 
we  have  eliminated  topics  3,  16,  38,  39,  and  40.  We  have  also 
indicated  that  we  question  the  need  of  topics  4,  5,  9,  34,  and 
36,  some  of  which  we  may  later  discard.  If  we  examine  the 
remaining  thirty  topics,  we  shall  possibly  discover  that  they 
include  everything  that  will  be  required  for  a  clear  presenta- 
tion of  our  subject,  "How  we  Earned  our  Car." 

Our  revised  list  now  possesses  a  fair  degree  of  unity,  but  not 
yet  does  it  constitute  a  good  plan.  Our  readers  would  grow 
dizzy  trying  to  understand  our  composition  if  we  dealt  with  our 
topics  in  such  a  confused  order  as  that  in  which  they  now 
stand.  We  must  therefore  arrange  them  in  an  order  that  is 
natural  and  easy  for  the  reader  to  follow.  Obviously,  too,  we 
should  decide  upon  a  relatively  small  number  of  principal 
topics  and  subordinate  the  remaining  topics  to  these.  In  this 
process  of  orderly  arrangement  we  shall  find  the  second  funda- 
mental law  of  composition-building  a  valuable  aid. 

58.  The  law  of  coherence.  The  law  of  coherence  requires 
that  all  ideas  that  are  connected  in  thought  be  grouped  together 
and  that  the  principal  topics  in  a  composition  be  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  or  logical  order. 

With  our  unified  list  of  topics  before  us  let  us  select  the 
principal  topics— those  that  seem  to  constitute  the  framework 
of  our  composition.  What  topics  may  we  group  together?  How 
shall  we  phrase  the  principal  topics  under  which  we  arrange 
each  group?  Let  us  take  another  sheet  of  paper  and  try  to 
answer  these  questions.  We  shall  first  look  for  the  principal 
topics. 


76  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

HOW  WE  EARNED  OUR  CAR 

1.  Buying  our  car  last  Christmas. 

2.  Our  New  Year's  plan  to  earn  a  car. 

3.  Why  we  had  not  bought  a  car  earlier. 

4.  How  I  made  my  part. 

5.  How  mother  earned  her  part. 

6.  How  father  saved  and  made  his  share. 

7.  How  Tom  obtained  his  part. 

8.  How  Mary  earned  her  share. 

9.  Mother's  report  in  December. 

As  we  look  over  our  original  list  we, may  decide  that  these 
nine  main  topics  will  include  all  that  we  plan  to  say  about  our 
subject.  Each  topic  will  be  the  subject  of  a  paragraph  in  our 
composition.  But  have  we  arranged  our  main  topics  in  their 
natural  time  order?  Proper  courtesy  demands,  too,  that  we 
arrange  topics  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8  in  a  different  order.  Bearing 
these  points  in  mind,  let  us  now  rearrange  our  outline. 

HOW  WE  EARNED  OUR  CAR 

1.  Why  we  had  not  bought  a  car  earlier. 

2.  Our  New  Year's  plan  to  earn  a  car. 

3.  How  mother  earned  her  part. 

4.  How  father  saved  and  made  his  share. 

5.  How  Mary  earned  her  share. 

6.  How  Tom  obtained  his  part. 

7.  How  I  made  my  part. 

8.  Mother's  report  in  December. 

9.  Buying  our  car  last  Christmas. 

Now  that  we  have  correctly  arranged  the  principal  topics  of 
our  outline,  we  may  ask  ourselves.  How  shall  we  group  the 
remaining  topics  in  our  revised  list  (pages  73  and  74)  so  that 
each  may  contribute  to  the  development  of  its  appropriate 
main  topic  ?  Let  us  try  the  following  arrangement : 


PLANNING  AX  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  77 

HOW  WE  EARNED  OUR  CAR 

1.  Why  we  had  not  bought  a  car  earlier. 
a.  Heavy  family  expenses. 

I).  Father's  small  increase  in  salary. 

c.  Our  disappointment. 

d.  Our  reconciliation. 

2.  Our  New  Year's  plan  to  earn  a  car. 

a.  Mother's  plan. 

b.  Mother  elected  treasurer. 

c.  Our  weekly  reports. 

3.  How  mother  earned  her  part. 

a.  A  dollar  a  week  as  treasurer. 

b.  Selling  home  products. 

c.  Knitting  sweaters  and  mufflers. 

d.  Her  needlework  prize. 

4.  How  father  saved  and  made  his  share. 

a.  Tobacco  money  and  carfare. 

b.  Extra  work  at  night. 

5.  How  Mary  earned  her  share. 

a.  Clerking  in  vacation. 

b.  Selling  homemade  candy  and  jelly. 

c.  Knitting  silk  neckties. 

6.  How  Tom  obtained  his  part. 

a.  Clerking  on  Saturdays. 

b.  Mowing  lawns  and  spading  flower  beds. 

c.  Keeping  time  for  a  construction  company. 

7.  How  I  made  my  part. 

a.  Fattening  my  pig. 

b.  Picking  fruit  and  helping  mother. 

c.  Selling  my  pig. 

8.  Mother's  report  in  December. 

a.  Our  total  earnings  and  savings. 

b.  Mother's  success  over  the  rest  of  us. 

c.  Grandfather's  unexpected  check. 

9.  Buying  our  car  last  Christmas. 

a.  The  selection  of  the  car  by  the  entire  family. 

b.  More  than  enough  money. 

c.  Father's  remark  as  we  rode  home. 


78  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

By  comparing  our  final  outline  with  our  previous  attempts  at 
the  correct  arrangement  of  our  material  we  shall  see  that  we 
now  have  an  orderly  plan  to  guide  us  in  writing  clearly  on  our 
subject.  Thus  far  we  have  satisfied  the  demands  of  the  law  of 
unity  and  the  law  of  coherence.  Let  us  now  consider  the  third 
law  of  composition-building. 

59.  The  law  of  emphasis.  The  law  of  emphasis  requires  that 
the  important  topics  of  a  composition  be  given  their  correct 
proportion  of  space  and  that,  whenever  possible,  the  most  im- 
portant topic  be  placed  so  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
reader. 

When  we  read  an  account  of  a  baseball  game  or  of  a  fire,  we 
generally  find  special  attention  given  to  one  idea,  and  that  idea 
is,  as  a  rule,  the  most  important.  Usually  it  has  more  space 
devoted  to  it  than  is  given  to  any  of  the  others.  It  may  be  a 
spectacular  home  run,  or  some  accident  or  deed  of  heroism  at 
the  fire.  The  writer,  recognizing  that  these  topics  are  the  most 
important,  has  awarded  them  the  most  space.  The  ideas  which 
catch  our  eye  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  account 
remain  longest  in  the  mind.  What  was  in  the  middle  of  the 
account  made  some  impression,  but  we  remember  best  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  most  important 
positions  in  a  composition  are  the  beginning  and  the  end. 

Frequently  in  applying  the  law  of  coherence  in  working  out 
a  clear  and  orderly  plan  we  at  the  same  time  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  the  law  of  emphasis.  Let  us  examine  the  outline  that 
we  have  been  constructing  for  our  composition  on  ''How  we 
Earned  our  Car."  Naturally  our  first  question  is,  Which  idea 
should  be  developed  most  fully  ?  From  the  very  nature  of  our 
subject  this  idea  is  the  actual  earning  of  the  car  by  the  members 
of  our  family.  If  we  consult  our  outline  we  discover  that  we 
have  planned  to  devote  paragraphs  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7— five  out  of 
the  total  of  nine  paragraphs — to  this  most  important  idea.  Our 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  79 

second  question  is.  Which  idea  sliould  be  reserved  for  an  em- 
phatic ending?  Since  our  composition  is  to  be  an  account  of 
how  we  earned  our  car  by  carryinf^  out  our  New  Year's  plan, 
our  readers  will  be  most  interested  to  learn  of  the  success  of 
our  plan  and  the  purchase  of  the  car.  These  two  topics  we 
have  properly  reserved  for  the  last  two  paragraphs.  In  our 
outline,  therefore,  we  have  conformed  to  both  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  law  of  emphasis.  We  may  now  regard  the  outline 
as  complete. 

60,  The  form  of  an  outline.  In  making  an  outline  we  should 
indicate  principal  and  subordinate  topics  by  a  definite  system 
of  numbering  them  and  arranging  them  on  paper.  In  our  out- 
line on  page  77  the  figures  designate  main  topics;  the  letters 
represent  subordinate  topics.  P'igures,  letters,  and  topics  should 
be  punctuated  according  to  the  practice  illustrated  in  our  outline. 
Furthermore,  the  subordination  of  topics  should  be  indicated 
by  indenting  them  and  placing  them  under  their  appropriate 
main  topics.  Each  principal  topic,  with  its  subordinate  topics, 
constitutes  the  material  for  a  paragraph. 

In  the  next  place,  it  is  advisable  in  all  outlines,  except  those 
prepared  for  a  formal  argument,  to  express  each  topic  in  the 
form  of  a  brief  phrase  instead  of  a  sentence.  We  should  never 
employ  both  sentences  and  phrases  as  topics  in  the  same 
outline. 

Again,  though  few  of  our  short  compositions  will  require  a 
separate  paragraph  as  an  introduction  and  another,  final  para- 
graph as  a  conclusion,  it  is  well  to  consider  the  beginning  and 
the  ending  of  our  composition  and  provide  for  them  in  making 
the  outline. 

Lastly,  we  should  form  the  habit  of  devising  a  good  outline 
for  every  composition  that  we  write.  Before  we  can  be  sure 
that  it  is  a  good  outline  we  must  test  it  to  see  whether  it  satisfies 
the  laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 


8o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 


Read  over  each  of  the  following  lists  carefully.  Now  proceed  to 
construct  a  good  outline  for  each  subject.  ( i )  Guided  by  the  law 
of  unity,  eliminate  or  add  any  topics  that  the  adequate  treatment 
of  the  subject  may  demand.  Have  a  definite  reason  for  including 
each  topic.  (2)  In  accordance  with  the  law  of  coherence,  discover 
the  main  topics  and  the  subordinate  topics,  and  arrange  these  in 
their  proper  order.  (3)  Examine  the  outline  that  you  have  thus 
far  made,  in  order  to  see  whether  it  satisfies  the  law  of  emphasis. 
If  it  does  not,  make  any  revision  that  may  be  necessary.  Come  to 
class  prepared  to  explain  and  to  defend  your  completed  outlines 
in  every  detail. 

MY  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

1.  The  schoolhouse. 

2.  Where  I  lived. 

3.  My  essay  at  graduation. 

4.  The  work  of  the  ninth  grade  (last  year). 

5.  Sickness. 

6.  My  favorite  study. 

7.  The  spelhng-match. 

8.  Arithmetic. 

9.  My  quarrel  with  Johnny  Green. 

10.  Geography. 

11.  American  history. 

12.  Grammar. 

13.  The  seventh  grade. 

14.  The  eighth  grade. 

15.  The  number  of  boys  and  girls  in  my  class. 

16.  Nature  study. 

17.  Singing. 

18.  Teachers. 

19.  The  playground. 

20.  My  favorite  teacher. 

21.  What  I  expect  in  high  school. 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION 


HOW  WE  CELEBRATED  LAST  CHRISTMAS 


1.  The  Christmas  tree. 

2.  The  decorations. 

3.  My  grandfather. 

4.  The  family  party. 

5.  The  games  we  played. 

6.  Christmas  Eve. 

7.  Description  of  our  house. 

8.  Arrival  of  relatives. 

9.  My  grandmother. 

10.  My  cousins. 

11.  My  presents. 

12.  How  we  decorated  the  tree. 

13.  When  we  went  to  bed. 

14.  My  strange  dream. 

15.  Our  burglar. 


16.  Tales  grandfather  told. 

17.  The  dinner. 

18.  The   plum   pudding. 

19.  Candies. 

20.  The  turkey. 

21.  How  mother  surprised  U3. 

22.  Who  Santa  Claus  was. 

23.  Lighting  the  tree. 

24.  The  accident. 

25.  A  present  for  our  dog. 

26.  How  I  was  waked  up. 

27.  The  arrival  of  Santa  Clau3. 

28.  The  jokes  we  played. 

29.  Putting  the  house  in  order. 

30.  My  uncle's  telegram. 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  SCHOOL  PAPERS 


1.  The  editor  in  chief. 

2.  Difficulties  of  publishing  a 

school  paper. 

3.  Members    of   the   editorial 

department. 

4.  Faculty  supervisor. 

5.  Reporters. 

6.  Editorial  department. 

7.  Managerial  department. 

8.  Literary-  editors. 

9.  The  managing  board. 

10.  Exchange  editor. 

11.  Business  manager 

12.  Staff  artist. 

13.  Staff  poet. 

14.  Duties   of   the   faculty  su- 

pervisor. 

15.  Getting    advertisements. 


16.  Lack  of  promptness  in  edi- 

tors and  managers. 

17.  Lack  of  student  support. 

18.  Failure  of  students  to  pat- 

ronize  advertisers. 

19.  Humorous-column  editor. 

20.  Assistant  business  managers. 

21.  Staff  meetings. 

22.  Influence  of  the  faculty  su- 

pervisor. 

23.  Athletic  editors. 

24.  Cadet  editors. 

25.  Society  editors. 

26.  The  reader's  opinion  of  the 

paper. 

27.  Getting  subscriptions. 

28.  Other  members  of  the  edi- 

torial department. 


1  Preserve  your  outline  on  this  subject  for  future  reference. 


82  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


II 

Study  the  following  outlines  carefully.  Do  they  satisfy  the 
laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  ?  If  not,  point  out  viola- 
tions of  these  principles  and  reconstruct  the  outlines  so  that  they 
conform  to  all  three  laws.    (Read  again  section  54.) 

MY  HOME 

1.  The  front  of  the  house. 

a.  Old-fashioned. 

b.  Style  of  architecture. 

c.  Color. 

d.  The  new  roof. 

e.  The  east  side  porch. 

/.  The  vine-covered  back  porch.  . 

2.  The  front  yard.  ■ 

a.  The  street. 

b.  The  gravel  walk. 

c.  Flower  beds. 

d.  The  lawn. 

e.  The  ornamental  fence. 
/.  The  trees. 

g.  The  tennis  court  in  the  rear. 

3.  The  interior  of  the  house. 

a.  My  room  upstairs. 

b.  The  front  hall. 

c.  The  pictures  I  like  best. 

d.  The  living-room. 

e.  The  library. 

/.  The  kitchen  and  the  dining-room. 
g.  The  view  from  my  window. 
h.  The  attic. 

i.  Grandmother's  old  trunk. 
;'.  Other  rooms. 

4.  The  garage. 

a.  Built  of  concrete. 

b.  Spanish  style. 

c.  Our  car. 


i 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  83 

5.  Other  houses  on  our  street. 

a.  The  old  red  brick  house. 

b.  The  new  bungalow. 

c.  The  school  building. 


MY  FIRST  \ISIT  TO  MV  UNCLES  HOME 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  My  age. 

b.  Companions. 

c.  Circumstances  of  my  visit. 

2.  Amusements. 

a.  Horseback  riding. 

b.  Fishing. 

c.  Indoor  games. 

d.  Tennis. 

e.  Old-fashioned  barn  dance. 

3.  Our  journey. 

a.  Preparations. 

b.  Means  of  conveyance. 

c.  Late  start. 

d.  A  blowout. 

e.  Interesting  sights. 
/.  Our  arrival. 

4.  My  uncle's  home. 

a.  Fine  stock. 

b.  Stables. 

c.  Grounds. 

d.  Old-fashioned  house. 

e.  Servants'  quarters. 
/.  Tennis  courts. 

5.  My  uncle's  family. 

a.  Aunt  Betty. 

b.  Jack,  his  dog. 

c.  My  four  cousins. 

d.  Hired  man  and  cook. 

6.  My  return  home. 
a.  Our  accident. 

h.  The  auaint  old  inn. 


84  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III 

In  accord  with  the  directions  given  in  section  12  and  section  52 
select  a  subject  for  an  original  composition  of  about  three  hundred 
words,  and  prepare  an  outline  that  satisfies  the  demands  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis. 

61.  Summary.  Oral  composition  and  the  writing  of  com- 
positions in  which  we  retell  another  person's  thought  have  grad- 
ually prepared  us  for  the  writing  of  original  compositions. 

In  order  to  make  our  readers  understand  and  feel  an  interest 
in  what  we  write,  we  must  express  our  thoughts  clearly  and 
forcefully. 

There  are  three  steps  in  planning  a  composition:  (i)  the 
choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject ;  (2)  the  selection  of  neces- 
sary material;  and  (3)  the  careful  arrangement  of  this  material 
by  means  of  an  outline. 

In  choosing  a  limited  subject  we  should  try  to  select  also 
an  effective  title.  We  should,  furthermore,  decide  on  the  point 
of  view,  and  then  keep  this  point  of  view  definitely  in  mind 
throughout  the  planning  and  the  writing  of  our  composition. 

In  selecting  the  necessary  material  for  our  composition  we 
should  jot  down  all  topics  that  seem  to  be  related  to  the  subject. 

In  choosing  the  topics  from  our  list  and  arranging  them  in 
the  form  of  an  outline  we  should  be  guided  by  the  three  funda- 
mental principles  of  composition-building ;  namely,  the  law  of 
unity,  the  law  of  coherence,  and  the  law  of  emphasis. 

The  law  of  unity  requires  that  all  topics  in  a  composition  be 
directly  related  to  the  subject  and  that  all  topics  necessary  to  a 
clear  presentation  of  the  subject  be  included. 

The  law  of  coherence  requires  that  all  ideas  that  are  con- 
nected in  thought  be  grouped  together  and  that  the  principal 
topics  in  a  composition  be  arranged  according  to  their  natural 
or  logical  order. 


PLANNING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  85 

The  law  of  emphasis  requires  that  the  important  topics  of  a 
composition  be  given  their  correct  proportion  of  space  and 
that,  whenever  possible,  the  most  important  topic  be  placed  so 
as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  reader. 

An  outline,  by  its  form  and  by  the  proper  use  of  figures  and 
letters  to  designate  the  topics,  should  show  at  a  glance  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  topics.  Topics  should  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  form  of  phrases  instead  of  sentences.  If  the  com- 
position requires  an  introduction  and  a  conclusion,  these  should 
be  provided  for  in  the  outline.  Each  topic  and  the  figure  or 
letter  that  stands  before  it  should  be  correctly  punctuated. 

The  making  of  an  outline  according  to  the  laws  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis  should  precede  any  attempt  to  begin 
writing  a  composition. 


CHAPTER  V 
WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION 

62.  Developing  the  outline  into  a  composition.  A  large  as 
well  as  an  important  part  of  our  composition-writing  has  been 
done  when  we  have  prepared  our  outline.  In  accord  with  the 
laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  we  have  decided  what 
topics  we  shall  include,  how  we  shall  arrange  them,  and  how 
much  space  we  shall  allot  to  each.  We  are  now  ready  to  de- 
velop our  outline  into  a  composition. 

The  writing,  like  the  planning,  of  a  satisfactory  .composition 
consists  of  three  distinct  steps :  (i)  writing  the  first  rough  draft 
of  the  composition  from  the  outline;  (2)  revising  and  rewriting 
the  composition  before  it  is  submitted  for  correction ;  and 
(3)  revising  and  rewriting  the  composition  after  it  has  been 
corrected. 

Our  aim  in  all  writing  should  be  the  discovery  and  use  of  the 
most  effective  means  of  expressing  our  thoughts.  We  can  ac- 
complish this  aim  only  through  numerous  experiments  and 
through  painstaking  revision  and  rewriting.  From  the  very 
outset  we  should  understand  what  every  successful  student  of 
writing  knows  by  his  own  experience  to  be  true :  Good  compo- 
sitions are  not  merely  written;  they  are  rewritten. 

An  outline  is  nothing  more  than  the  framework  of  a  composi- 
tion. Obviously,  therefore,  the  expansion  of  each  topic  into  a 
complete  sentence  and  the  grouping  of  these  sentences  in  their 
respective  paragraphs  can  in  no  true  sense  be  regarded  as  the 
full  development  of  the  outline.  Though  the  subtopics  repre- 
sent the  main  ideas  to  be  used  in  developing  the  principal  topic 
under  which  they  stand,  they  themselves  often  require  addi- 

86 


WRITING  AX  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  87 

tional  ideas  for  their  development.  Furthermore,  the  relation- 
ship between  these  subtopics  must  be  shown  by  means  of 
carefully  constructed  sentences.  The  relationship  between  the 
principal  topics,  which  are  the  subjects  of  their  respective 
paragraphs,  must  likewise  be  made  clear. 

A  comparison  of  the  outline  that  we  made  in  the  previous 
chapter  and  the  composition  that  was  written  from  it  will  show 
us  more  clearly  what  is  meant  by  the  development  of  an  outline. 
The  pupil  who  wrote  the  composition  printed  below  began  by 
writing  out  the  best  first  draft  that  he  could  compose.  Next,  he 
carefully  revised  what  he  had  written  and  rewrote  the  paper. 
A  day  or  two  later  he  read  over  his  composition  and  made  sev- 
eral other  corrections  and  improvements.  He  then  rewrote  it 
a  second  time  and  made  a  copy  of  his  outline,  which  he  placed 
before  the  first  page  of  his  composition  when  he  submitted  it. 
Lastly,  he  examined  his  finished  composition  to  see  that  he  had 
not  overlooked  any  violations  of  good  form.  Here  we  have  his 
composition  and  his  outline. 

HOW  WE  EARNED  OUR  CAR 

Christmas  before  last  we  were  i.  Why  we  had  not  bought  a 

all  greatly  disappointed  when  fa-  car  earlier. 

ther  could  not  buy  us  a  car,  as 

he  had  planned.   Mother's  long  ill-  a.  Heavy  family  expenses, 

ness  and  the  repairs  on  our  house 
that  the  fire  of  the  previous  sum- 
mer necessitated  had  left  very 
little  of  the  money  that  father  had 

been  saving.    Besides,   father  got  b.  Father's  small  increase  in 

only  a  small  increase  in  salary  at  salary, 

the  end  of  the  year.  For  these 
reasons  he  and  mother  decided 
that  we  had  better  wait  to  buy  a 
car  until  we  could  pay  cash. 
Mother   sympathized   with    Mary  c.  Our  disappointment. 


88 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


and  Tom  and  me  in  our  disap- 
pointment. Mary  could  not  keep 
from  crying,  for  all  our  neighbors 
had  cars.  But  when  we  thought 
how  fortunate  we  were  in  having 
mother  still  with  us,  we  became 
reconciled  to  doing  without  a  car. 

On  New  Year's  morning  mother 
proposed  that  we  make  a  resolu- 
tion to  earn  a  car  during  the  com- 
ing year.  We  were  not  to  touch 
father's  salary,  but  were  to  get 
the  money  by  doing  extra  work 
and  by  saving  all  we  could.  We 
readily  agreed.  Tom,  Mary,  and 
I  decided  at  once  that  we  would 
try  to  find  jobs  on  Saturdays,  and 
that  we  would  stay  in  town  and 
work  during  vacation  instead  of 
going  to  grandfather's,  out  in  the 
country,  as  we  usually  did  in  sum- 
mer. We  elected  mother  treas- 
urer at  a  dollar  a  week.  Every 
Saturday  night  we  were  to  report 
to  her  and  turn  over  our  earnings, 
which  she  would  deposit  in  the 
savings  bank.  No  one  but  mother 
was  to  know  until  December  how 
much  we  had. 

When  we  agreed  to  pay  mother 
a  dollar  a  week  as  treasurer,  we 
thought  that  would  be  all  she 
could  earn ;  but  we  did  not  know 
mother.  She  hired  Mary  and  me 
on  commission,  and  paid  us  half 
of  all  we  helped  her  to  make  out 
of  the  garden,  the  orchard,  the 
cow,  and  the  chickens.  She  and 
Mary  also  made  preserves,  sweet 


d.  Our  reconciliation. 


2.  Our  New  Year's  plan  to  earn 
a  car. 


a.  Mother's  plan. 


b.  Mother  elected  treasurer. 

c.  Our  weekly  reports. 


3.  How  mother  earned  her  part. 
a.  A  dollar  a  week  as  treas- 
urer. 


b.  Selling  home  products. 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION 


89 


pickles,  jelly,  and  candy  to  sell. 
At  odd  times  mother  knitted 
sweaters  and  mufflers,  and  Miss 
Cartwright  sold  them  in  her  shop. 
In  addition,  mother  had  the  good 
luck  to  win  a  needlework  prize  of 
twenty-five  dollars. 

In  order  to  earn  his  part,  in 
addition  to  his  salary,  father  quit 
smoking  and  walked  home  from 
work  every  day.  Three  evenings 
a  week  he  taught  bookkeeping  in 
the  night  school.  On  the  other 
three  evenings  he  audited  accounts 
for  some  of  the  stores.  He  was  al- 
ways telling  mother  that  he  was 
afraid  she  would  get  ahead  of  him. 

Of  course  Mary  could  not  make 
as  much  as  the  rest  of  us.  During 
vacation  she  clerked  in  Miss  Cart- 
wright's  shop.  Miss  Cartwright 
let  her  sell  homemade  candy  and 
jelly  that  she  and  mother  had  made. 
Mary  sold  some  silk  neckties  too 
that  she  had  knitted.  But  she  spent 
part  of  her  money  for  clothes. 

Tom  was  sure  that  he  was  mak- 
ing more  than  any  of  the  rest  of 
us.  On  Saturdays  he  clerked  for 
Mr.  Morse,  and  in  the  evenings  he 
spaded  flower  beds  and  mowed 
lawns  for  several  old  ladies.  In 
the  summer  he  struck  it  rich  and 
got  a  job  keeping  time  for  a  con- 
struction company  at  five  dollars 
a  day.    How  I  envied  him  ! 

At  first  it  seemed  that  all  the 
money  I  could  earn  would  be 
what  mother  paid  me  for  helping 


c.  Knitting     sweaters     and 
mufflers. 


d.  Her   needlework   prize. 

4.  How  father  saved  and  made 
his  share. 

a.  Tobacco  money  and  car- 

fare. 

b.  Extra  work  at  night. 


5.  How  Mary  earned  her  share. 

a.  Clerking  in  vacation. 

b.  Selling  homemade   candy 

and  jelly.        , 

c.  Knitting  silk  neckties. 

6.  How  Tom  obtained  his  part. 

a.  Clerking  on  Saturdays. 

b.  Mowing  lawns  and  spad- 

ing flower  beds. 

c.  Keeping  time  for  a  con- 

struction  company. 

7.  How  I  made  my  part. 


90 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


her.  But,  in  March,  Uncle  Frank 
surprised  me  by  sending  me  a  pig 
to  fatten.  How  proud  I  was  of 
that  pig.  and  how  I  did  feed  him  ! 
I  kept  the  garden  weeded  and  the 
cabbage  almost  stripped  of  leaves 
getting  green  stuff  for  him.  Two 
of  the  neighbors  saved  all  their 
garbage  for  me  to  give  him.  In 
the  summer  I  earned  several  dol- 
lars picking  berries  and  peaches. 
Almost  every  day  mother  paid  me 
something  for  delivering  milk,  but- 
ter, eggs,  and  vegetables  to  the 
neighbors.  When  I  sold  my  pig  in 
December.  I  received  forty-six 
dollars  and  eighty  cents  for  him. 
Mary  was  terribly  jealous  of  me, 
and  so  was  Tom.  though  he  would 
not  admit  it. 

At  breakfast  on  the  day  after 
I  had  sold  my  pig,  mother  made 
her  report.  We  held  our  breath  in 
eager  expectation.  During  the 
year  we  had  earned  and  saved 
one  thousand  and  forty  dollars. 
Mother  had  made  more  than  any 
of  the  rest  of  us,  and  Tom  came 
second.  I  was  fourth.  But  that 
was  not  our  only  surprise.  Grand- 
father had  written  mother  that  he 
wanted  a  share  in  our  car  and  had 
sent  her  a  check  for  a  hundred 
dollars.  The  shouts  of  joy  that 
we  gave  as  mother  finished  her 
report  must  have  waked  every 
neighbor  within  two  blocks  of  us. 

Three  days  before  Christmas  all 
of  us  accompanied  father  to  pur- 


c.  Fattening  my  pig. 


b.  Picking  fruit  and  helping 
mother. 


C.  Selling  my  pig. 


Mother's   report  in  Decem- 
ber. 


a.  Our    total    earnings    and 

savings. 

b.  Mother's  success  over  the 

rest  of  us. 


c.  Grandfather's   unexpected 
check. 


g.  Buying  our  car  last  Christ- 
mas. 


WRITING  AX  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  91 

chase  the   car.    Though   we  each 

had    at    first    wanted    a    different 

make,  mother  finally  persuaded  us  a.  The  selection  of  the  car 

all  to  agree  to  her  choice.    After  by  the  entire  family. 

paying  cash  for  the  car  we  each 

had  fifty  dollars  left  as  a  savings  b.  More  than  enough  money. 

account  in  the  bank  to  begin  the 

new  year  with.    As  Tom  drove  us 

home     father    remarked,    ''Well,  c.  Father's    remark    as    we 

ours  is  a  real  family  car."  rode  home. 


63.  The  beginning  of  a  composition.  No  part  of  a  compo- 
sition furnishes  more  scope  for  originality  or  requires  more 
skill  than  does  the  introduction.  Thout^h  no  set  rules  can  be 
given  for  beginning  a  composition,  we  can  learn  many  of  the 
general  principles  by  observing  the  practice  of  reputable  writers. 

The  beginning  of  a  composition  has  a  twofold  purpose.  First, 
it  should  acquaint  the  reader  with  what  we  intend  to  write 
about  and  with  our  point  of  view.  Secondly,  it  should  in- 
terest him  to  find  out  what  is  to  follow.  Frequently  we  can 
accomplish  this  purpose  in  a  sentence  or  two.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, we  may  require  a  simple  introductory  paragraph  in  which 
to  give  our  point  of  view,  suggest  an  appropriate  setting  for 
what  we  have  to  say,  and  thus  provide  a  natural,  effective 
approach  to  the  treatment  of  our  subject.  Whatever  the  length 
of  the  beginning,  it  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  gain  the 
reader's  attention  and,  while  making  clear  our  general  purpose, 
leave  a  pleasing  sense  of  expectancy  as  to  the  details  of  our 
composition. 

The  three  essential  qualities  of  a  good  beginning  are  clear- 
ness, directness,  and  appropriateness.  By  putting  ourselves  in 
the  place  of  our  readers  we  can  usually  discover  whether  or  not 
the  beginning  of  our  composition  is  likely  to  serve  its  purpose 
of  informing  and  interesting  others.   Simplicity  is  a  valuable 


92  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

aid  to  clearness  in  introducing  our  treatment  of  a  subject.  In 
every  composition  it  is  desirable  to  get  to  the  actual  discussion 
of  our  subject  as  quickly  as  clearness  will  permit.  For  this  rea- 
son we  should  try  to  make  the  beginning  concise  and  direct. 
Obviously,  a  good  beginning  must  be  appropriate  to  the  subject 
that  it  introduces ;  otherwise  we  violate  clearness. 

EXERCISES 


Comment  on  the  following  beginnings.  Does  each  perform  the 
twofold  purpose  mentioned  above?  Does  each  possess  the  three 
essential  qualities  of  a  good  beginning  ?  Can  you  suggest  any  im- 
provement ? 

MARK  TWAIN'S  DOUBLE 

Not  long  ago  I  heard  the  following  interesting  anecdote  about 
Mark  Twain.  The  story  was  told  by  an  old  friend  of  his  and 
illustrates  well  a  prominent  trait  in  the  great  American  humorist's 
character. 

THE  PEACEFUL  REIGN  OF  QUEEN  VICTORIA 

"Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown."  The  truth  of  this 
saying  has  been  illustrated  in  the  life  of  many  a  monarch,  but  it 
seemed  almost  to  be  disproved  in  the  case  of  Queen  Victoria,  whose 
long  reign  was  one  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

II 

Comment  on  the  beginning  of  the  following  selections:  (i) 
"Man's  Threescore  and  Ten  Years,"  pp.  19-20;  (2)  "How  we 
earned  our  Car,"  pp.  87-91. 

64.  The  ending  of  a  composition.  Unless  we  are  careful  in 
devising  a  good  ending  for  our  composition,  we  may  detract  in 
either  of  two  ways  from  the  effect  of  what  we  have  written. 
If  we  merely  stop  abruptly  when  we  have  developed  the  last 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  93 

main  topic  of  our  outline,  instead  of  briefly  rounding  off  the 
whole  composition  by  means  of  a  concise,  effective  ending,  we 
leave  the  composition  unfinished  and  thus  demand  too  much  of 
our  readers.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  do  not  know  when  to 
stop,  and  loosely  add  an  unnecessary  paragraph,  we  destroy 
whatever  emphasis  we  may  have  attained  by  developing  the 
most  important  topic  last,  and  we  usually  bore  the  reader. 

In  short  compositions  we  shall  often  need  only  a  sentence  or 
two  by  way  of  an  ending.  Sometimes,  however,  we  may  need  a 
brief  concluding  paragraph.  In  such  a  paragraph  we  may  give 
a  concise  summary  of  what  has  preceded,  or  we  may  make  in- 
ferences from  it.  The  conclusion  should  strengthen  what  has 
already  been  discussed  rather  than  develop  a  new  thought. 
Although  a  good  ending  should  not  attract  attention  in  itself, 
it  should  not  be  so  commonplace  and  mechanical  as  to  cause  a 
sudden  drop  in  the  reader's  interest. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Comment  on  the  following  ending.  Does  it  seem  to  you  a  good 
one?    If  so,  why? 

THE  CHARACTER  OF  QUEEN  ELIZABETH 

We  must  distinguish,  therefore,  between  the  private  and  the  public 
character  of  Elizabeth.  As  a  sovereign  she  was  energetic,  wise,  and 
clever.  As  a  woman  she  varied  from  grave  to  gay,  wise  to  fooHsh, 
kind  to  cruel,  and  faithful  to  faithless.  Elizabeth  the  queen  was  a  strong 
and  trustworthy  ruler.  Elizabeth  the  woman  was  often  the  creature 
of  the  hour. 

II 

Comment  on  the  ending  of  the  following  selections :  (i)  ''Man's 
Threescore  and  Ten  Years,"  pp.  19-20;  (2)  ''How  we  earned  our 
Car,"  pp.  87-91. 


94  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

65.  Transitions  from  paragraph  to  paragraph.  Each  prin- 
cipal topic  of  our  outline,  as  we  have  noticed,  is  developed  by 
means  of  a  group  of  related  sentences  into  a  division  of  the 
whole  composition.  Each  of  these  divisions  we  call  a  para- 
graph. In  order  to  make  it  easy  for  our  readers  to  follow  our 
thought  throughout  the  composition,  we  should  be  careful  to 
show  the  relation  of  each  paragraph  to  the  one  immediately 
preceding  and  the  one  immediately  following  it.  The  connect- 
ing link  between  two  paragraphs  we  call  the  transitional  device. 
There  are  many  of  these  devices  for  making  clear  the  connec- 
tion between  successive  paragraphs,  thus  enabling  the  reader  to 
pass  easily  and  naturally  from  one  topic  to  another. 

In  narrations,  in  which  we  usually  adopt  the  natural  cohe- 
rent order  either  of  time  or  of  cause  and  effect  in  arranging  the 
incidents,  we  may  use  as  transitional  devices  such  phrases  as 
"The  next  morning,"  "Having  satisfied  myself  that  the  door 
was  locked,"  "Such  an  insult  I  could  not  forget,"  or  "Knowing 
his  irritable  nature." 

In  descriptions  we  usually  arrange  the  paragraph  groups  of 
details  in  the  natural  order  of  either  space  or  time  relationship. 
For  the  guidance  of  our  readers  we  may  begin  our  paragraphs 
with  such  transitional  phrases  as  "Across  the  street  from  our 
house,"  "In  the  center  of  the  excited  group,"  "This  same  scene 
viewed  at  sunset,"  or  "As  the  man  came  nearer." 

In  exposition  and  in  argument,  transitions  are  more  difficult 
to  manage  and  are  for  this  reason  all  the  more  necessary  for 
our  readers.  Some  of  the  most  useful  means  of  transition  be- 
tween paragraphs  in  these  two  types  of  writing  are  the  follow- 
ing :  ( I )  beginning  a  new  paragraph  with  a  word  or  a  group  of 
words  referring  to  something  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph; (2)  ending  a  paragraph  with  a  sentence  referring  for- 
ward to  what  is  to  be  discussed  in  the  paragraph  that  follows ; 
(3)  transitional  words  and  phrases,  such  as  however,  therefore, 


I 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  95 

moreover,  furthermore,  accordingly,  notwithstanding,  neverthe- 
less, in  addition  to  all  this,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  for  this  reason, 
in  this  way,  by  such  a  method,  on  the  contrary;  (4)  repe- 
tition of  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  used  in  the  previous 
paragraph;  and  (5)  close  connection  of  thought,  so  that  no 
formal  transitional  device  is  required. 

In  all  our  writing  we  should  give  attention  to  transition  from 
paragraph  to  paragraph ;  otherwise  our  compositions  may  seem 
to  the  reader  to  violate  the  laws  of  unity  and  coherence. 

EXERCISE 

Point  out  and  explain  the  transitional  devices  used  in  the  follow- 
ing selections  :  ( i )  "  Man's  Threescore  and  Ten  Years/'  pp.  19-20 ; 
(2)  ''How  we  earned  our  Car,"  pp.  87-91. 

66.  Revising  a  composition  before  it  is  submitted.  Our  chief 
aim  in  writing  is,  as  we  have  noticed,  to  communicate  our 
thoughts,  observations,  and  experiences  clearly  and  interest- 
ingly to  our  readers.  To  do  this  we  must  make  the  reading  of 
what  we  have  to  say  easy  and  entertaining.  Because  of  the 
complex  nature  of  a  composition  and  our  lack  of  experience  in 
composing,  we  cannot  expect  to  give  our  thought  its  best  ex- 
pression in  the  first,  or  even  the  second,  writing.  Only  by  care- 
fully revising,  polishing,  and  rewriting  our  compositions  until 
they  honestly  represent  our  best  effort  can  we  ultimately  attain 
real  skill  in  writing. 

Since  we  desire  that  our  readers  give  their  whole  attention 
to  our  thoughts,  we  should  studiously  avoid  distracting  their 
attention  by  violations  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  structure 
or  the  principles  of  good  form.  When  we  have  written  the 
first  rough  draft  of  our  composition,  we  have  really  taken  only 
the  initial  step  in  adequately  presenting  our  subject  to  the 
reader.   If  we  have  written  this  first  copy  in  pencil  and  have 


96  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

left  wide  margins  and  considerable  space  between  the  lines,  we 
can  do  much  in  the  way  of  revision  by  erasing,  crossing  out,  and 
writing  between  the  lines  and  in  the  margins.  From  the  revised 
first  draft  we  should  make  a  neat  second  copy,  which  should  be 
put  aside  for  a  day  or  two  and  then  read  over  aloud,  to  discover 
in  what  ways  we  may  improve  it  still  further.  Usually  we  shall 
find  it  necessary  to  rewrite  the  composition  a  second  time. 

In  our  work  of  revision  we  shall  find  the  following  questions 
and  suggestions  helpful: 

1.  Are  there  any  topics  not  mentioned  in  my  outline  that 
really  belong  to  the  discussion  of  my  subject?  If  so,  where 
should  they  be  brought  in  ?  Have  I  included  any  unnecessary 
topics?  (The  more  we  work  with  a  subject,  the  better  we  come 
to  understand  it.  We  should  not,  therefore,  consider  the  outline 
permanent  and  sacred  if  we  find,  in  the  process  of  writing,  that 
we  can  improve  it.) 

2.  Have  I  so  arranged  the  topics  of  my  composition  that 
their  relation  one  to  another  is  natural  and  clear  ?  If  not,  how 
can  I  improve  the  arrangement  ? 

3.  Have  I  indicated  the  more  important  topics  of  my  com- 
position by  giving  each  its  proper  proportion  of  space  ?  Have  I 
placed  the  most  important  topic  in  the  most  emphatic  position  ? 

4.  How  can  I  improve  the  beginning  of  my  composition? 
Does  it  serve  the  purpose  of  a  good  beginning?  (See  section  63.) 

5.  How  can  I  improve  the  ending  of  my  composition?  Do  I 
need  a  concluding  paragraph?    (See  section  64.) 

6.  Have  I  made  clear  the  relation  of  one  paragraph  to  an- 
other by  means  of  proper  transitional  devices  ?  (See  section  65.) 

7.  Have  I  one  and  only  one  paragraph  for  each  principal 
topic  ? 

8.  Are  any  of  the  sentences  that  I  have  used  too  long?  Are 
they  clear  ?  Do  they  sound  natural  and  easy  when  I  read  them 
aloud  ? 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  97 

9.  Have  I  observed  the  rules  of  grammar? 

10.  Have  I  been  careful  in  the  choice  of  reputable  and  ef- 
fective words?  Have  I  permitted  any  slang  expressions  to 
creep  in? 

11.  Are  there  any  misspelled  words  that  I  have  overlooked? 

12.  Have  I  punctuated  all  my  sentences  so  as  to  make  them 
readily  intelligible  to  my  readers? 

13.  Is  my  manuscript  neat  and  correct  in  all  details  (see 
section  22)  ?  If  I  were  the  reader,  should  I  be  likely  to  form  a 
good  opinion  of  the  writer  from  the  general  appearance  of  the 
manuscript? 

14.  If  I  were  the  reader,  should  I  really  enjoy  reading  this 
composition?   If  so,  why? 

15.  Does  this  piece  of  writing  honestly  represent  my  best 
knowledge  of  composition  ? 

Remember  that  a  good  thought  has  little  chance  of  impress- 
ing others  favorably  until  it  is  well  expressed.  Readers  must 
be  won  by  our  skill  in  making  our  compositions  clear,  interest- 
ing, and  attractive. 

67.  Rewriting  a  corrected  composition.  Since  our  teachers  in 
high  school  and  in  college  are  more  experienced  writers  than 
we,  they  can  usually  give  us  valuable  suggestions  for  the 
improvement  of  our  compositions.  Special  corrections  are  indi- 
cated by  means  of  symbols  (see  Appendix  E)  placed  in  the  mar- 
gin of  each  page,  and  general  suggestions  are  often  written  on 
the  outside  of  the  paper.  These  corrections  and  suggestions  are 
of  little  real  value  to  us  until  we  have  revised  and  rewritten  our 
composition  in  accordance  with  them.  Within  a  w^ek,  there- 
fore, after  a  corrected  composition  has  been  returned  to  us  we 
should  carefully  revise  it  and  rewrite  it.  This  final  version,  to- 
gether with  the  paper  corrected  by  the  teacher,  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  show  that  we  have  understood  and  profited  by  the 
corrections  and  suggestions. 


98  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Failure  to  rewrite  our  compositions  after  we  have  been  shown 
how  to  improve  them  results  in  a  waste  of  our  own  and  our 
teacher's  time  and  effort.  We  should  preserve  all  of  our  cor- 
rected compositions  and  read  them  over  frequently  throughout 
each  course.  Rereading  them  will  show  us  to  what  extent  we 
are  becoming  more  skillful  writers  and  will  usually  encourage 
us  to  take  even  greater  interest  in  expressing  ourselves  well. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 
I 

With  the  outline  before  you  that  you  constructed  from  the  topics 
on  page  8 1 ,  read  the  following  sele'^tion : 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  SCHOOL  PAPER 

A  person  picking  up  a  copy  of  some  school  paper  and  reading  it 
through  from  cover  to  cover  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  minutes,  lays 
it  down  with  the  feeling  that  after  all  it  is  a  slight  matter,  hastily 
patched  together  and  poorly  printed.  The  truth,  however,  is  that  an 
immense  amount  of  detail  work  is  required  to  produce  a  good  periodi- 
cal. This  work  can  be  done  more  efficiently  and  more  easily  if  it  is 
distributed  among  the  members  of  a  pubHcation  board  composed  of 
two  departments,  the  editorial  and  the  managerial.  Each  of  these  de- 
partments is  in  turn  composed  of  members  among  whom  the  work  is 
still  further  divided. 

The  branch  which  seems  to  be  the  more  important  is  the  editorial 
department,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  editor  in  chief.  He  is  directly 
responsible  for  the  efficient  working  of  the  whole  system.  If  he  knows 
his  business,  he  distributes  his  work  and  his  responsibility  among  the 
other  members  of  the  department  and  maintains  personally  only  a 
general  supervision.  He  must,  however,  plan  the  contents  of  the  issues 
and  see  that  every  assistant  knows  what  is  required  of  him.  He  must 
also  assign  work  outside  of  the  regular  routine  of  each  subdepartment 
and  must  arrange  the  material  when  it  is  prepared.  He  has  the  impor- 
tant duty  of  writing  at  least  the  majority  of  the  editorials ;  and  since 
these  may  be  a  source  of  both  good  and  evil  to  the  school  and  to  the 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  99 

paper,  the  editor  in  chief  must  be  both  a  capable  and  a  responsible  per- 
son. Next  in  importance  come  the  literary  editors,  the  result  of  whose 
labors  forms  the  first  pages  of  the  paper.  By  various  means  they  get 
students  to  contribute  stories  and  articles,  which  they  examine  and 
correct.  In  case  of  a  shortage  in  supply  of  material  they  must  them- 
selves furnish  it.  To  some  readers  the  athletics  editor  seems  most 
important,  but  he  portrays,  of  course,  only  one  side  of  school  life.  In 
his  way,  however,  he  can  do  much  to  make  the  paper  popular.  He  re- 
ports athletic  contests,  discusses  athletic  possibilities  and  prophecies, 
and  makes  the  paper  interesting  to  athletically  inclined  readers.  Since 
both  boys  and  girls  constitute  the  various  athletic  teams,  a  boy  and  a 
girl  usually  share  the  ofiice  of  athletics  editor.  The  activities  of  a  cadet 
organization  in  both  military  and  social  affairs  are  reported  by  the  cadet 
editor. 

One  feature  of  the  paper  appeals  to  ever>-body,  and  that  is  the  col- 
lection of  bon  mots  dropped  in  recitations  and  of  good-natured  criticisms 
of  students'  idiosyncrasies.  This  department  is  in  charge  of  an  editor, 
who  has  unofficial  assistants  in  every  class.  A  department  which  is 
proving  itself  of  service  to  the  board  is  the  exchange  column,  also  in 
charge  of  an  editor.  The  latter's  duties  are  to  send  out  copies  of  the 
paper  to  other  schools,  to  receive  their  copies,  to  criticize  or  commend 
the  latter  as  he  thinks  proper,  and  to  reproduce  jokes  from  them. 
In  large  schools,  where  there  are  geniuses  of  all  kinds,  another  member, 
who  can  write  verse,  is  added  to  the  department  under  the  title  of  staff 
poet.  His  duty  is,  as  his  title  implies,  to  write  verses  on  timely  topics, 
for  the  sake  of  giving  variety  to  the  paper.  Where  papers  can  afford 
the  expense,  another  genius,  a  staff  artist,  is  added  to  the  board.  His 
work  is  to  embellish  the  covers  with  designs  and  the  pages  with  cuts. 
Many  times  it  is  considered  wise  to  have  a  body  of  substitutes,  or  under- 
studies. This  body  is  made  up  of  reporters,  who  act  as  assistants  to 
the  editors,  especially  to  the  editor  of  the  bon  mots,  and  who  are  given 
the  least  important  assignments. 

The  other  department,  the  one  that  works  behind  the  scenes,  is  the 
managerial.  Its  work  of  financing  the  paper  is  of  great  importance, 
since  upon  its  efficiency  depends  the  success  of  the  finished  product. 
The  department  is  in  charge  of  a  business  manager,  who  divides  the 
work  among  his  assistants.  One  or  more  of  the  latter  obtain  the  adver- 
tisements and  collect  the  money  for  them.  The  other  assistants  have 
charge  of  selling  the  paper. 


100  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Such  is  the  mechanism  required  in  publishing  a  good  school  paper. 
The  board  is  a  miniature  government,  with  the  editor  in  chief  at  its 
head.  There  is,  however,  someone  higher  in  authority  than  the  editor, 
and  that  person  is  the  faculty  supervisor.  The  latter  might  be  called 
the  managing  editor,  for  his  duties  are  similar  to  those  of  the  editor. 
In  some  schools  his  participation  is  merely  a  matter  of  form,  but  in 
others  he  controls  largely  what  enters  into  the  paper,  and  can  do  much 
toward  raising  its  standard. 

Now,  it  would  seem  that  publishing  a  paper  is  a  simple  thing.  All 
one  has  to  do  is  to  set  the  clockwork  in  order  and  wind  it  up,  and  it  goes 
by  itself.  But  there  are  a  number  of  difficulties  which  prevent  the 
mechanism  from  running  smoothly,  and  sometimes  from  running  at  all. 
We  must  not  forget,  while  speaking  in  metaphors,  that  editors  and  man- 
agers are  only  human  and  therefore  not  perfect.  They  do  not  always 
accomplish  the  work  they  are  supposed  to  and  do  not  always  prepare 
the  manuscripts  on  time.  This  causes  confusion  in  the  system  and 
trouble  between  the  editor  in  chief  and  his  assistants.  Another  diffi- 
culty experienced  by  the  board  is  the  lack  of  support  by  the  student 
body.  While  not  hesitating  to  criticize  the  contents  of  an  issue,  the 
students  are  seldom  eager  to  contribute  the  kind  of  stories,  news,  and 
articles  which  they  think  the  issue  should  contain.  In  not  subscribing  for 
the  paper  they  deprive  the  treasury  of  an  added  source  of  income  and 
lessen  its  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  advertisers.  The  latter  condition  is 
aggravated  by  the  fact  that  students  do  not  make  it  a  rule  to  patronize 
the  advertisers,  who  make  possible  the  publishing  of  the  periodical. 

II 

Now  that  you  have  read  the  composition  printed  above,  expand 
the  following  outline  by  finding  the  subordinate  topics  that  de- 
velop each  main  topic.    Express  all  your  subtopics  as  phrases. 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  SCHOOL  PAPER 

1.  The  pubhcation  board. 

2.  The  principal  members  of  the  editorial  department. 

3.  Other  members  of  the  editorial  department. 

4.  The  managerial  department. 

5.  The  faculty  supervisor. 

6.  The  difficulties  of  publishing  a  school  paper. 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  loi 

III 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  a  talk  on  one  of  the  subjects  out- 
lined below  (read  again  section  ii): 

HOW  TO  PLAN  AND  MAKE  A  DRESS 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  Dressmaking  an  enviable  accomplishment. 

b.  Skill  and  judgment  required. 

2.  Planning  the  dress. 

a.  Purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 

b.  Finding  suitable  materials. 

c.  Choosing  an  appropriate  style. 

d.  Selecting  a  satisfactory  pattern. 

3.  Making  the  dress. 

a.  Laying  out  the  pattern  on  the  materiaL 

b.  Cutting. 

c.  Basting. 

d.  Fitting. 

e.  Sewing. 

/.  Finishing. 

4.  Pride  in  the  completed  dress. 

a.  Economy. 

b.  The  joy  of  creating  something. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  TENNIS  COURT 

1.  Preliminary  considerations. 

a.  Best  time  of  the  year. 

b.  Choosing  a  suitable  location. 

2.  Preparing  the  court. 

a.  Clearing  the  ground. 

b.  Leveling  the  ground. 

c.  Rolling. 

3.  Completing  the  court. 

a.  Laying  off  the  court. 

b.  Putting  in  the  net  posts. 

c.  Constructing  the  backstops. 

4.  The  finished  court. 


102  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

Write  a  composition  on  the  same  subject  on  which  you  prepared 
your  talk  in  Exercise  III.  Make  any  changes  in  the  outline  that 
you  find  necessary.    Hand  in  the  outline  with  your  composition. 

V 

Make  an  outline  for  a  composition  of  about  three  hundred  words 
on  one  of  the  following  subjects : 

1.  How  to  Install  a  Radio  Telephone. 

2.  How  to  Prepare  a  Baseball  Diamond. 

3.  My  Visit  to  an  Interesting  Manufacturing  Plant. 

4.  Why  I  Enjoy  Keeping  a  Diary. 

5.  My  Favorite  Magazine. 

6.  Automobiles  and  Good  Roads. 

7.  A  Model  Dairy. 

8.  How  Plants  Grow. 

VI 

Write  out  the  first  draft  of  your  composition  developing  the  out- 
line that  you  made  in  Exercise  V. 

VII 

According  to  the  directions  given  in  section  66,  carefully  revise 
and  rewrite  your  composition.  Before  you  submit  it  for  correction 
be  sure  that  it  represents  your  best  knowledge  of  composition. 

VIII 

From  the  list  of  subjects  on  page  30  select  three  subjects  and 
•write  an  appropriate  beginning  and  ending  for  a  composition  on  each. 

IX 

After  you  have  made  an  outline  of  one  of  the  subjects  that  you 
chose  in  Exercise  VIII,  write  a  composition  of  three  hundred  words 
or  more  developing  your  outline. 


WRITING  AN  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  103 

68.  Summary.  The  writing  of  a  satisfactory  composition  in- 
cludes three  distinct  steps: 

1.  Writing  the  first  rough  draft  from  the  outline. 

2.  Revising  and  rewriting  the  composition  before  it  is  sub- 
mitted for  correction. 

3.  Revising  and  rewriting  the  composition  after  it  has  been 
corrected. 

Good  compositions  are  not  merely  written ;  they  are  re- 
written. 

An  outline  is  simply  the  framework  of  a  composition.  Each 
topic  should  be  so  developed  that  its  relation  to  other  topics 
will  be  clear. 

The  beginning  of  a  composition  should  acquaint  the  reader 
with  what  we  intend  to  write  about  and  with  our  point  of  view. 
In  addition,  it  should  interest  him  to  find  out  what  is  to 
follow.  The  three  essential  qualities  of  a  good  beginning  are 
clearness,  directness,  and  appropriateness. 

A  composition  should  end,  not  merely  stop.  A  good  ending 
should  be  concise,  but  it  should  be  sufficient  to  round  off  and 
complete  the  whole  composition.  If  a  brief  concluding  para- 
graph is  used,  it  may  include  a  summary  of  what  has  preceded 
or  contain  inferences  drawn  from  the  previous  discussion.  The 
ending  should  strengthen  what  has  already  been  discussed, 
rather  than  develop  a  new  thought. 

In  order  to  make  clear  the  relation  of  one  paragraph  to  an- 
other, we  should  employ  appropriate  transitional  devices. 

In  revising  and  rewriting  our  compositions  we  should  be 
guided  by  the  laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  and  the 
demands  of  good  form.  No  composition  should  ever  be  sub- 
mitted until  it  represents  our  very  best  effort. 

All  compositions  that  have  been  corrected  should  be  carefully 
revised  and  rewritten.  Until  this  has  been  done  we  cannot  con- 
sider our  handling  of  a  subject  satisfactory  or  complete. 


CHAPTER  VI 
LETTER-WRITING 

69.  Importance  of  letter-writing.  For  each  of  us  the  letter 
constitutes  an  important  part  of  our  writing.  We  make  almost 
daily  use  of  it  in  our  social  and  business  correspondence.  More 
than  any  other  form  of  written  composition  it  affords  us  prac- 
tice in  the  clear,  natural,  and  entertaining  expression  of  our 
thoughts  and  feelings.  A  letter  expresses  our  individuality  with 
great  accuracy  and  vividness.  By  its  contents,  style,  and  form 
it  impresses  our  reader  favorably  or  unfavorably  in  respect  to 
our  personality  and  education.  A  correspondent  whom  we  have 
never  met  has  no  other  means  of  forming  his  estimate  of  us. 
The  growth  of  a  friendship  begun  through  personal  acquaintance 
often  depends  on  our  ability  to  write  a  good  letter.  So  true  an 
index  of  character  is  the  letter  that  business  men  require  persons 
seeking  a  responsible  position  to  make  application  in  writing. 
For  these  reasons  letter-writing  deserves  special  study. 

Though  the  general  principles  of  composition  govern  the 
writing  of  letters,  there  are  certain  particular  rules  relating  to 
form  and  arrangement  that  we  should  follow.  These  rules  are 
established  by  custom.  Correct  usage  and  courtesy  to  our  cor- 
respondents demand  conformity  to  them. 

70.  Kinds  of  letters.  In  spite  of  variations  in  length,  subject 
matter,  and  general  style,  letters  may  be  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal classes :  ( i )  social  letters,  which  include  friendly  letters, 
informal  notes,  and  formal  notes,  and  (2)  business  letters. 

71.  General  form  of  letters.  Good  form  and  attractiveness 
in  the  appearance  of  letters  require  that  the  following  details 
receive  close  attention: 

104 


LETTER-WRITING  105 

1.  Paper.  Letters  of  all  kinds  should  be  written  on  unruled 
paper,  preferably  white,  though  slightly  tinted  stationery  is 
permissible.  Business  letters  are  written  on  paper  8^  x  11 
inches.  For  social  letters  regular  four-page  sheets  of  corre- 
spondence paper  should  be  used.  Envelopes  should  match 
the  paper,  though  in  business  correspondence  government 
stamped  envelopes  are  satisfactory. 

2.  Ink.  The  ink  used  should  be  black.  If  the  letter  is  written 
on  a  typewriter,  a  black  ribbon  of  good  quality  should  be  used. 

3.  Legibility.  Select  a  pen  adapted  to  your  style  of  hand- 
writing and  write  legibly.  Avoid  flourishes  and  shadings.  Do 
not  crowd  lines  too  close  together  and  do  not  run  the  letters  of 
one  line  into  those  of  the  line  above.  Leave  the  proper  amount 
of  space  between  words  and  avoid  running  together  the  letters 
in  the  last  word  in  a  line.  Punctuate  distinctly.  Business  letters 
should,  if  possible,  be  typewritten.  Social  letters  should  be 
written  with  pen  and  ink. 

4.  General  appearance.  The  entire  letter  should  be  neat  and 
attractive  in  appearance.  The  writing  should  be  correctly 
spaced  and  symmetrically  arranged.  An  ample  margin  should 
be  left  on  both  sides,  and  at  the  top  and  bottom,  of  the  page. 
Paragraphs  should  be  properly  indented.  The  various  parts  of 
the  letter  should  be  arranged  according  to  the  instructions  con- 
tained in  the  following  sections.  See  that  the  page  is  free  from 
finger  prints,  blots,  or  unsightly  erasures.  Do  all  that  you  can 
in  respect  to  the  form  and  arrangement  of  your  letter  to  make 
the  reading  of  it  easy  and  pleasurable  for  your  correspondent. 

5.  Pages.  In  business  letters  write  on  only  one  side  of  the 
sheet.  In  social  letters,  where  the  folded  four-page  correspond- 
ence paper  is  used,  it  is  proper  to  write  on  both  sides  of  the 
sheet,  and  the  pages  should  be  written  on  in  regular  book  order. 
If  a  social  letter  does  not  exceed  two  pages,  it  may  be  written 
on  pages  one  and  three. 


io6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

6.  Folding.  If  a  business  letter  is  to  be  inclosed  in  an  official 
envelope  (usually  measuring  about  4  x  lo  inches),  the  sheet 
on  which  it  is  written  should  be  folded  twice  horizontally  so  as 
to  divide  it  into  thirds.  If  a  regular  commercial-size  envelope 
(usually  measuring  about  3^  x  6^  inches)  is  to  be  used,  the 
sheet  should  be  folded  once  horizontally  in  the  center,  and  then 
the  folded  sheet  should  be  folded  twice  at  right  angles  to  the 
central  crease  so  as  to  divide  it  into  thirds.  The  four-page 
sheet  on  which  a  social  letter  is  written  should  be  folded  once 
horizontally  across  the  center.  In  every  case  the  folded  letter 
should  fit  the  envelope  exactly  and  should  be  so  placed  that 
when  it  is  removed  from  the  envelope  and  unfolded  it  will  be 
in  the  proper  position  for  reading. 

7.  Correctness.  Finally,  and  most  important  of  all,  a  letter 
should  be  free  from  errors  in  grammar,  sentence  structure, 
spelling,  and  diction.  In  addition,  it  should  be  correctly  divided 
into  paragraphs  and  intelligently  punctuated. 

72.  Parts  of  a  letter.  Although  there  are  some  slight  differ- 
ences of  form,  the  essential  parts  of  a  letter  are 


I.  The  heading  | 


Address  of  the  writer. 
Date. 
I.  Name  of  the  correspondent. 
II.  The  introduction    \  2.  Address  of  the  correspondent. 
[  3.  Salutation. 

III.  The  letter  proper. 

IV.  The  conclusion 


Complimentary  close. 


2.  Signature. 

,,   ^,  .  ,.       f  I.  Name  of  the  correspondent. 

V.  The  superscription!  ^    ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  correspondent. 

The  heading.  The  heading  of  a  letter  is  usually  placed  in  the 
upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  page,  about  an  inch  from  the 
top.  It  should  include  the  street  (or  rural  route)  and  number, 
the  town  and  state,  and  the  date.    In  a  letter  to  an  intimate 


LETTER-WRITING  107 

friend  we  may  omit  the  address,  although  it  is  better  to  include 
it.   The  date  should  never  be  omitted. 

The  examples  given  below  illustrate  the  proper  arrangement 
and  punctuation  of  the  heading.  It  may  be  written  in  two, 
three,  or  even  four  lines,  according  to  the  length  of  the  address, 
with  either  open  or  close  punctuation.  Furthermore,  the  lines 
of  the  address  may  be  written  in  block  form,  or  else  each  line 
after  the  first  may  be  successively  indented. 

1.  Block  form  with  open  punctuation: 

137  East  Tenth  Street 
Atlanta,  Georgia 
September  18,  1922 

2.  Successive  indentation  with  open  punctuation: 

86  Brighton  Road 
Nashville 
Tennessee 

October  2,  1922 

3.  Block  form  with  close  punctuation: 

3  Ellendale  Place, 
Los  Angeles, 
California, 
November  21,  1922. 

4.  Successive  indentation  with  close  punctuation: 

Rural  Route  7, 

Menardville,  Ohio, 
December   21,    1922. 

The  style  of  arrangement  and  punctuation  adopted  for  the 
heading  of  the  letter  should  be  followed  consistently  in  writing 
the  inside  address  and  the  superscription. 

The  introduction.  In  a  letter  to  any  person  who  is  not  an  in- 
timate friend  or  relative  there  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  letter  his  name  and  address,  followed  by  an  appropriate 


io8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

salutation.  The  name  should  begin  about  two  line-spaces  below 
the  date,  and  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page,  about  an  inch 
from  the  edge  of  the  paper.  This  inch  margin  at  the  left  should 
be  observed  on  every  page  of  the  letter. 

The  name  and  address  may  consist  of  three  or  four  lines, 
according  to  the  length.  In  formal  social  letters  the  name  and 
address  are  often  placed  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  at  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  page  and  a  little  below  the  writer's  name.  In 
familiar  letters  it  is  permissible  to  omit  them  altogether.  Like 
the  heading,  they  may  be  written  in  block  form  or  with  suc- 
cessive indentation,  and  with  open  or  close  punctuation. 

The  salutation  should  begin  even  with  the  left-hand  margin 
of  the  page  and  one  line-space  below  the  last  line  of  the  address. 
In  familiar  letters,  where  the  name  and  address  are  omitted,  or 
in  formal  social  letters,  where  the  name  and  address  are  placed 
at  the  end,  the  salutation  should  begin  two  line-spaces  below 
the  date.  The  form  will  vary  according  to  our  relations  with 
our  correspondent.  In  every  form,  however,  the  first  word  and 
the  word  which  stands  for  the  person's  name  should  be  capital- 
ized ;  for  example.  Dear  Helen,  My  dear  Uncle  Robert.  My 
dear  Friend  is  considered  more  formal  than  Dear  Friend.  In  a 
formal  social  or  business  letter  a  colon  usually  follows  the  salu- 
tation. In  a  familiar  letter  a  comma  is  sufficient.  If  the  letter 
proper  begins  on  the  same  line  with  the  salutation,  a  dash  may 
be  placed  after  the  colon  or  the  comm^a.  In  this  case  the  saluta- 
tion is  usually  indented.  The  following  examples  illustrate 
salutations  properly  written  and  punctuated : 

I.  In  a  formal  social  or  business  letter: 

My  dear  Mr.  Crawford  : 

The  book  which  you  recently  called  to  my  attention,  etc. 

My  dear  Mr.  Crawford: — The  book  which  you  recently  called  to 
my  attention,  etc. 


LETTER-WRITING  109 

2.  In  a  familiar  letter: 

Dear  Aunt  Charlotte, 

The  plan  you  propose  for  my  vacation,  etc. 

Dear  Aunt  Charlotte, — The  plan  you  propose  for  my  vacation,  etc. 

The  letter  proper.  The  main  part  of  the  letter  usually  begins 
one  or  two  line-spaces  below  the  salutation,  with  the  indentation 
of  a  paragraph.  The  subject  matter  should  be  paragraphed  ac- 
cording to  topics.  Complete  sentences  should  be  employed 
throughout,  and  all  pronouns  and  other  words  that  are  gram- 
matically necessary  should  be  expressed. 

The  beginning  should  be  direct  and  original.  There  is  no 
valid  reason  why  the  opening  sentence  should  not  begin  with 
the  pronoun  /.  No  apology  for  not  having  written  should  be 
made  unless  the  excuse  is  an  extremely  good  one.  Sudden  ill- 
ness, accident,  or  unexpected  absence  from  home  may  need  an 
explanation,  but  the  less  said  about  general  negligence  the 
better.  No  abbreviations,  such  as  mo.  for  month,  Sat.  for 
Saturday,  or  the  sign  &  for  and,  should  be  used,  since  they  sug- 
gest haste  and  lack  of  consideration  for  our  correspondent. 
Hackneyed  expressions  should  be  avoided,  for  a  letter  ought  to 
express  the  individuality  of  the  writer.  A  letter  should  not 
close  too  abruptly.  On  the  other  hand,  such  senseless  re- 
marks as  "Since  I  can  think  of  nothing  more  to  write,  I  will 
now  close"  should  never  be  used. 

The  conclusion.  The  conclusion  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  the 
complimentary  close  and  the  signature.  By  the  complimentary 
close  we  mean  the  concluding  words  of  respect  or  affection, 
such  as  the  following: 

Sincerely  yours.  Cordially  yours. 

Very  truly  yours.  Yours  affectionately, 

Respectfully  yours,  Yours  with  love. 

Your  sincere  friend,  Your  loving  daughter. 


no  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Only  the  first  word  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and 
the  last  word  should  be  followed  by  a  comma.  The  place  for 
the  complimentary  close  is  one  line-space  below  the  concluding 
words  of  the  letter  proper.  The  examples  given  below  illustrate 
conclusions  properly  written. 

1.  My  brother  joins  me  in  wishing  you  a  happy  vacation. 

Your  sincere  friend, 

^vamZ  iJJo-vttcvn'ci 

2.  Mother  and  I  shall  expect  to  see  you  in  Denver  next  summer. 

Sincerely  yours, 

/'fa^XA^Let  71'tLtvyLa/yv 

3.  I  hope  to  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing  you  this  summer. 

Cordially  yours, 

The  signature  is  written  one  line-space  below  the  compli- 
mentary close.  In  letters  to  intimate  friends  or  to  relatives  we 
may  sign  merely  our  first  name,  but  in  other  cases  we  should 
write  our  name  in  full.  If  the  writer  is  a  woman,  it  is  customary 
for  her  to  indicate  whether  or  not  she  is  married  by  inclosing 
her  title  in  parenthesis  at  the  left  of  her  name  or  by  prefixing 
her  title  to  her  husband's  name,  in  parenthesis,  immediately 
beneath  her  own.  Below  are  given  some  examples  of  conclu- 
sions thus  written. 

1.  An  intimate  friend: 

Affectionately  yours, 

2.  An  unmarried  woman: 

Very  truly  yours, 


LETTER-WRITING  iii 

3.  A  married  woman : 

Very  truly  yours, 

4.  A  widow  who  prefers  to  use  her  own  name : 

Very  truly  yours, 

The  superscription.  The  superscription  is  written  on  the  en- 
velope and  includes  the  name  and  address  of  the  person  for 
whom  the  letter  is  intended.  It  may  be  arranged  in  three,  four, 
or  even  five  lines  and  should  be  placed  symmetrically  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  envelope.  Like  the  heading  and  the  inside 
address,  it  may  be  wTitten  in  block  form  or  with  successive 
indentation,  and  with  open  or  close  punctuation. 

A  man's  name  may  be  written  in  two  ways :  Mr.  Robert  Kil- 
mer, or  Robert  Kilmer,  Esq.  The  latter  form  is  employed  in 
writing  to  lawyers  and  other  professional  men  and  is  most 
common  in  social  correspondence.  In  the  address  of  a  letter  to 
a  married  woman  her  husband's  title  should  not  appear.  Hence 
such  forms  of  address  as  The  Rev.  Mrs.  Spencer,  Mrs.  Dr. 
Trent,  and  Mrs.  General  Horton  are  not  in  good  taste. 

In  addition  to  the  superscription,  the  name  and  address  of 
the  writer  may  be  placed  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the 
envelope.  This  insures  the  return  of  the  letter  if  it  is  not 
delivered. 

73.  Qualities  of  the  friendly  letter.  The  principal  charm  of  a 
friendly  letter  lies  in  its  individuality  and  simple  naturalness. 
The  one  who  receives  it  should  feel  that  it  is  written  for  him 
alone  and  with  intelligent  sympathy.  The  simple  frankness 
thus  implied  must  not  be  confounded  with  garrulity,  egotism, 


112  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

or  indiscretion.  Directness  and  sincerity  are  perfectly  consist- 
ent with  dignity  and  even  with  a  certain  amount  of  reserve. 

A  good  letter  is  definite  in  its  purpose  and  in  its  statements. 
Exaggeration  and  misleading  digressions  are  out  of  place  if  our 
intention  is  to  give  an  accurate  description,  narration,  or  ex- 
planation. If  our  purpose  is  solely  to  amuse  and  excite  to 
laughter,  burlesque  and  nonsense  are  perfectly  admissible.  In 
any  case  the  purpose  of  the  letter  should  be  apparent  and  should 
be  suitably  carried  out. 

The  letter  should  also  be  suggestive  in  style.  We  should 
assume  the  intelligence,  experience,  and  imagination  of  our 
correspondent  and  leave  something  to  be  supplied  rather  than 
exhaust  everything  ourselves.  This  is  more  courteous  and  more 
interesting  than  the  encyclopedic  method  of  writing. 

Courtesy  also  requires  care  in  the  arrangement  of  the  thought 
and  in  the  form  of  the  letter. 

74.  Subject  matter  of  the  friendly  letter.  Since  a  good  letter 
will  depend  for  its  thought  and  form  upon  the  personality  of 
the  writer,  no  absolute  statement  can  be  made  as  to  what  the 
letter  should  contain.  Many  people  consider  it  essential  to 
confine  themselves  to  plain  facts,  or,  as  they  call  it,  the  "news." 
Undoubtedly  our  correspondent  desires  to  hear  what  we  are 
doing  and  planning  to  do;  but  it  is  possible  that  so-called 
''news"  may  degenerate  into  trivial  gossip.  Stevenson  says: 
''I  deny  that  letters  should  contain  news  (I  mean  mine;  those 
of  other  people  should).  But  mine  should  contain  appropriate 
sentiments  and  humorous  nonsense,  or  nonsense  without  the 
humor."  This  author's  "humorous  nonsense"  was  charming  in 
itself,  and  bravely  concealed,  or  rather  ignored,  the  sad  news  of 
wasting  sickness  and  personal  suffering.  If  we  have  no  humor- 
ous nonsense  to  express,  we  may  confine  ourselves  to  interesting 
description,  narration,  and  explanation,  based  on  our  observa- 
tion and  experience  and  interpreted  by  our  imagination. 


LETTER-WRITIXG  113 

Each  of  the  letters  printed  below  reveals  the  personality  of 
the  writer  and  his  relation  to  his  correspondent. 


Robert  Louis  Stevenson  to  Annie  H.  Ide,  daughter  of  the  American 
Land  Commissioner,  to  whom  he  had  previously  "given  his  birth- 
day'^ and  whom  he  had  adopted  as  a  "name-daughter"  because, 
having  been  born  on  Christmas  Day,  she  regarded  herself  as  de- 
frauded of  her  natural  rights  to  a  private  anniversary 

Valima,  Samoa  [Xovember,  1891] 

My  dear  Louisa, — Your  picture  of  the  church,  the  photograph 
of  yourself  and  your  sister,  and  your  very  witty  and  pleasing 
letter,  came  all  in  a  bundle,  and  made  me  feel  I  had  my  money's 
worth  for  that  birthday.  I  am  now,  I  must  be,  one  of  your  nearest 
relatives ;  exactly  what  we  are  to  each  other,  I  do  not  know ;  I 
doubt  if  the  case  has  ever  happened  before — your  papa  ought  to 
know,  and  I  don't  believe  he  does;  but  I  think  I  ought  to  call  you 
in  the  meanwhile,  and  until  we  get  the  advice  of  counsel  learned  in 
the  law,  my  name-daughter.  Well,  I  was  extremely  pleased  to  see 
by  the  church  that  my  name-daughter  could  draw ;  by  the  letter, 
that  she  was  no  fool ;  and  by  the  photograph,  that  she  was  a  pretty 
girl,  which  hurts  nothing.  See  how  virtues  are  rewarded  !  My  first 
idea  of  adopting  you  was  entirely  charitable ;  and  here  I  find  that 
I  am  quite  proud  of  it,  and  of  you,  and  that  I  chose  just  the  kind 
of  name-daughter  I  wanted.  For  I  can  draw,  too,  or  rather  I  mean 
to  say  I  could  before  I  forgot  how ;  and  I  am  very  far  from  being  a 
fool  myself,  however  much  I  may  look  it ;  and  I  am  as  beautiful  as 
the  day,  or  at  least  I  once  hoped  that  perhaps  I  might  be  going  to 
be.  And  so  I  might.  So  that  you  see  we  are  well  met,  and  peers  on 
these  important  points.  I  am  very  glad  that  you  are  older  than 
your  sister.  So  should  I  have  been,  if  I  had  had  one.  So  that  the 
number  of  points  and  virtues  which  you  have  inherited  from  your 
name-father  is  already  quite  surprising. 

You  are  quite  wrong  as  to  the  effect  of  the  birthday  on  your  age. 
From  the  moment  the  deed  was  registered  (as  it  was  in  the  public 


114  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

press  with  every  solemnity),  the  13th  of  November  became  your 
own  and  only  birthday,  and  you  ceased  to  have  been  born  on  Christ- 
mas Day.  Ask  your  father :  I  am  sure  he  will  tell  you  this  is  sound 
law.  You  are  thus  become  a  month  and  twelve  days  younger 
[really,  older^  than  you  were,  but  will  go  on  growing  older  for  the 
future  in  the  regular  and  human  manner  from  one  13th  of  Novem- 
ber to  the  next.  The  effect  on  me  is  more  doubtful ;  I  may,  as  you 
suggest,  live  forever ;  I  might,  on  the  other  hand,  come  to  pieces 
like  the  one-horse  shay  at  a  moment's  notice ;  doubtless  the  step 
was  risky,  but  I  do  not  the  least  regret  that  which  enables  me  to 
sign  myself  your  revered  and  delighted  name-father, 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson^ 

II 

Abraham  Lincoln  to  Mrs.  Bixby 

Executive  Mansion,  Washington, 
November  21,  1864. 

Mrs.  Bixby,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Dear  Madam :  I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment a  statement  of  the  Adjutant-General  of  Massachusetts  that 
you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons  who  have  died  gloriously  on  the 
field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and  fruitless  must  be  any  words  of 
mine  which  should  attempt  to  beguile  you  from  the  grief  of  a  loss 
so  overwhelming.  But  I  cannot  refrain  from  tendering  you  the 
consolation  that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks  of  the  Republic  they 
died  to  save.  I  pray  that  our  Heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the 
anguish  of  your  bereavement,  and  leave  you  only  the  cherished 
memory  of  the  loved  and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride  that  must  be 
yours  to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar  of  freedom. 

Yours  very  sincerely  and  respectfully, 
Abraham  Lincoln 

iprom  "Letters  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson";  copyright,  1899,  1907,  1911, 
by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.   By  permission  of  the  publishers. 


LETTER-WRITIXG  115 

III 
Theodore  Roosevelt  to  his  son  Kermit 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo., 

•TM        ,  nr-        .  April  14,  iQOs. 

Blessed  Kermit,  ^       ^^    y  o 

I  hope  you  had  as  successful  a  trip  in  Florida  as  I  have  had  in 
Texas  and  Oklahoma.  The  first  six  days  were  of  the  usual  Presi- 
dential-tour type,  but  much  more  pleasant  than  ordinarily,  because 
I  did  not  have  to  do  quite  as  much  speaking,  and  there  was  a  certain 
irresponsibility  about  it  all,  due,  I  suppose,  in  part  to  the  fact  that  I 
am  no  longer  a  candidate  and  am  free  from  the  everlasting  suspicion 
and  ill-natured  judgment  which  being  a  candidate  entails.  How- 
ever, ...  in  Kentucky,  and  especially  in  Texas,  I  was  received 
with  a  warmth  and  heartiness  that  surprised  me,  while  the  Rough 
Riders'  reunion  at  San  Antonio  was  delightful  in  every  way. 

Then  came  the  five  days  of  wolf-hunting  in  Oklahoma,  and  this 
was  unalloyed  pleasure,  except  for  my  uneasiness  about  Auntie  Bye 
and  poor  little  Sheffield.  General  Young,  Dr.  Lambert,  and  Roly 
Fortescue  were  each  in  his  own  way  just  the  nicest  companions 
imaginable,  [and]  my  Texas  hosts  were  too  kind  and  friendly  and 
open-hearted  for  anything.  I  want  to  have  the  whole  party  up  at 
Washington  next  winter.  The  party  got  seventeen  wolves,  three 
coons,  and  any  number  of  rattlesnakes.  I  was  in  at  the  death  of 
eleven  wolves.  The  other  six  wolves  were  killed  by  members  of  the 
party  who  were  off  with  bunches  of  dogs  in  some  place  where  I  was 
not.  I  never  took  part  in  a  run  which  ended  in  the  death  of  a  wolf 
without  getting  through  the  run  in  time  to  see  the  death.  It  was 
tremendous  galloping  over  cut  banks,  prairie-dog  towns,  flats,  creek 
bottoms,  everything.  One  run  w'as  nine  miles  long,  and  I  was  the 
only  man  in  at  the  finish  except  the  professional  wolf-hunter 
Abernethy,  who  is  a  really  wonderful  fellow,  catching  the  wolves 
alive  by  thrusting  his  gloved  hands  down  between  their  jaws  so  that 
they  cannot  bite.  He  caught  one  wolf  alive,  tied  up  this  wolf,  and 
then  held  it  on  the  saddle,  followed  his  dogs  in  a  seven-mile  run.  and 
helped  kill  another  w^olf.  He  has  a  pretty  wife  and  five  cunning 
children,  of  whom  he  is  very  proud,  and  introduced  them  to  me,  and 


ii6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

I  liked  him  much.  We  were  in  the  saddle  eight  or  nine  hours  every- 
day, and  I  am  rather  glad  to  have  thirty-six  hours'  rest  on  the  cars 
before  starting  on  my  Colorado  bear  hunt. 

Your  loving  father, 

Theodore  Roosevelt^ 
IV 

Theodore  Roosevelt  to  his  son  Archie 

White  House, 
Dearest  Archie,  ^^^  ^O'  ^908. 

Mother  and  I  had  great  fun  at  Pine  Knot.  Mr.  Burroughs,  whom 
I  call  Oom  John,  was  with  us,  and  we  greatly  enjoyed  having  him. 
But  one  night  he  fell  into  great  disgrace !  The  flying  squirrels  that 
were  there  last  Christmas  had  raised  a  brood,  having  built  a  nest 
inside  the  room  in  which  you  used  to  sleep  and  in  which  John  Bur- 
roughs slept.  Of  course  they  held  high  carnival  at  night-time. 
Mother  and  I  do  not  mind  them  at  all,  and  indeed  rather  like  to 
hear  them  scrambling  about,  and  then,  as  a  sequel  to  a  sudden  fran- 
tic fight  between  two  of  them,  hearing  or  seeing  one  little  fellow 
come  plump  down  to  the  floor  and  scuttle  off  again  to  the  wall.  But 
one  night  they  waked  up  John  Burroughs  and  he  spent  a  misguided 
hour  hunting  for  the  nest,  and  when  he  found  it  he  took  it  down  and 
caught  two  of  the  young  squirrels  and  put  them  in  a  basket.  The 
next  day  under  Mother's  direction  I  took  them  out,  getting  my 
fingers  somewhat  bitten  in  the  process,  and  loosed  them  in  our 
room,  where  we  had  previously  put  back  the  nest.  I  do  not  think 
John  Burroughs  profited  by  his  misconduct,  because  the  squirrels 
were  more  active  than  ever  that  night  both  in  his  room  and  ours, 
the  disturbance  in  their  family  affairs  having  evidently  made  them 

restless!  ,r       i     •      r  .v 

Your  lovmg  father, 

Theodore  Roosevelt^ 

75.  Arrangement  of  the  subject  matter  in  paragraphs.    In 

letters,  as  in  all  other  forms  of  prose  composition,  each  princi- 

^From  "Theodore  Roosevelt's  Letters  to  his  Children,"  published  by 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.    By  permission  of  the  publishers. 


LETTER-WRITING  1 1 7 

pal  topic  and  the  details  belon^inj^  to  it  should  be  given  a  sepa- 
rate paragraph.  The  transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph 
should  be  made  as  natural  as  possible  by  being  based  on  the 
order  of  events  or  on  some  other  relation  by  which  one  topic 
suggests  another.  Though  it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  necessary  in  writ- 
ing friendly  letters  to  construct  a  formal  outline,  we  shall  find 
that  a  little  forethought  as  to  the  best  arrangement  of  our  main 
topics  will  enable  us  to  make  our  letters  more  coherent  and 
enjoyable  to  our  readers.  If  the  letter  is  short  and  concerns  but 
one  main  topic,  a  single  paragraph  is  adequate.  You  will  notice 
that  the  two  longer  letters  printed  above  are  divided  into  para- 
graphs, whereas  the  two  shorter  letters  consist  of  one  para- 
graph each. 

Observe  the  paragraphing  and  the  transitions  in  the  letters 
that  follow.  Note  also  the  informal,  conversational  style  in 
which  each  is  written.  Which  reveals  the  greater  amount  of 
personality?  What  other  desirable  qualities  of  the  friendly 
letter  do  you  discover? 

42  Ellsworth  Road, 

Wardwell,  Mass., 

DearBartlett,  '  May  2,  19-. 

You  sounded  rather  disgusted  with  yourself  in  your  last  letter. 
How  could  you  have  helped  having  the  mumps  ?  It  was  not  your 
fault  that  you  had  to  take  back  the  invitation  for  me  to  see  the 
aeroplane  meet.  I  laugh  when  I  think  of  you  squinting  out  over 
your  puffed-up  cheeks  to  see  Wright  go  sailing  past  your  house. 

You  needn't  be  sorry  for  me,  even  though  I  did  miss  the  visit 
and  the  meet.  Here's  a  moving-picture  film  of  what  I  did  Saturday. 
First  scene:  Tom  Stowe  and  little  sister  Nan  walking  on  rocks  at 
Marblehead.  Mother  in  the  distance  on  a  settee.  Film  jiggles  when 
Tom  steps  on  slippery  seaweed.  Second  scene:  All  of  a  sudden 
around  the  cape  comes  a  queer  sort  of  motor  boat  with  long  flippers 
trailing  after  it  in  the  water.  Tom  and  Nan  make  motions  of  sur- 
prise.   The  motor  boat  begins  to  stick  its  nose  out  of  the  water 


ii8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

higher  and  higher,  until  it  stands  right  up  on  the  ends  of  its  flippers. 
Then  it  rises  straight  out  of  the  water  and  sails  off  until  it  looks 
like  a  big  dragon-fly.  Audience  applauds.  Pen  and  Ink  Film  Co. 
Approved  by  Board  of  Censors. 

You  really  can't  think  how  surprised  we  were.  It  was  the  big 
hydroplane  that  the  government  had  bought  for  a  warship.  Don't 
the  things  make  a  noise  like  a  train  of  freight  cars  ?  I  wanted  to 
take  a  ride  on  one  of  the  wings. 

When  you  get  over  the  mumps,  I  wish  you'd  see  if  you  have  an 
Ecuador  postage  stamp  that  you  can  spare.  I'll  trade  you  three 
Italian  ones  for  it.    I  hope  you'll  be  out  before  long. 

Yours  sincerely, 

daw  ^tow-e^ 

Greenacres  Farm, 

Glencoe,  N.  H., 

^       ,,    .    .  April  1 6,  10—, 

Dear  Marjone, 

Here  I  am  at  Glencoe  for  the  whole  summer.  It  really  seems  too 
wonderful  to  be  true — visiting  this  old  house  of  grandmother's. 
You  know,  it's  a  Revolutionary  farmhouse.  Indeed,  it  certainly 
does  not  hide  that  distinction,  for  I  don't  believe  a  paintbrush  has 
touched  it  for  ever  so  many  years.  The  wall  papers  inside  are  al- 
most covered  with  stains ;  but  this  does  not  trouble  grandmother. 
She  says  she  wants  Greenacres  to  look  just  as  it  was  when  she  first 
came  here  with  grandfather.  The  rooms  downstairs  are  large  and 
airy,  but  those  upstairs  are  small  and  delightfully  cozy.  Grand- 
mother has  given  me  the  one  she  used  to  have,  and  she  couldn't 
have  suited  me  better.  It's  furnished  in  dark  walnut — just  the 
things  she  used  so  long  ago.  And,  Marjorie,  I  just  wish  you  could 
see  the  view  from  the  windows.  I  know  you  would  be  sketching  it 
in  no  time. 

But  the  most  interesting  thing  about  Greenacres  is  the  secret 
room.  As  I  know  your  fondness  for  such  things,  let  me  tell  you  a 
little  about  it.  First,  where  is  it  ?  Where  do  you  suppose  ?  Why, 
behind  a  large  portrait  of  the  man  it  sheltered  long  ago — my  great- 


LETTER-WRITING  1 1 9 

great-great-grandfather.  He  seems  a  long  way  back,  doesn't  he? 
As  it  is  behind  a  picture,  it  must  naturally  be  high  up  on  the  wall. 
And  so  it  is :  you  have  to  scale  a  stepladder  before  you  can  even 
see  in. 

It  was  in  June,  1776,  that,  as  my  great-great-great-grandmother 
sat  peeling  apples  by  the  kitchen  window,  a  young  soldier  rushed  up 
to  the  house.  He  said  that  some  redcoats  were  on  his  trail,  and 
that  he  must  find  a  hiding-place.  Grandmother  jumped  so  that  the 
apples  rolled  all  over  the  floor ;  but  the  next  minute  she  was  over 
her  surprise  and  had  put  the  man  in  the  secret  room. 

While  he  was  in  there  he  carved  his  initials  on  the  wall,  and  as 
he  was  going  that  evening,  he  told  grandmother — I  can't  write  out 
all  the  greats — that  sometime  he  would  come  back  and  thank  her 
properly  for  sheltering  him,  and  maybe  sometime  would  add  some 
initials  to  his  own.  He  came  back  when  the  war  was  over  and 
thanked  her  quite  properly.  Xow,  as  you  look  into  the  room  behind 
the  picture,  you  can  dimly  see  "B.M.,"  bracketed  with  "A.  L." 
There  is  more  to  the  story,  but  that  must  wait  to  be  told. 

And  noWj  IMarjorie,  "the  last  the  best  of  all  the  rest."  I  want 
you  to  come  next  week  and  see  these  sights  with  your  very  own 
eyes.    Please,  please  come,  Marjorie,  and  don't  disappoint  me. 

Very  lovingly  your  friend, 

EXERCISE 

Write  letters  suggested  by  two  of  the  following  topics.  Try  to 
make  your  letters  natural  and  interesting. 

1.  Write  to  your  father,  supposing  him  to  be  away  from  home.  Tell 
him  all  the  home  news. 

2.  Write  a  vacation  letter  describing  the  place  where  you  are  visit- 
ing and  the  persons  whom  you  meet. 

3.  Write  to  a  former  teacher,  describing  your  school  life  at  the 
present  time. 

4.  Write  to  a  friend  at  home,  describing  some  of  the  places  you  are 
visiting  on  an  automobile  trip  and  telling  him  of  any  accidents  or 
interesting  experiences  you  have  had. 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

/    5.  Write  a  letter  giving  an  account  of  a  recent  athletic  victory. 

6.  Write  to  a  friend  in  another  part  of  the  country,  telling  him 
some  of  the  things  which  he  will  probably  not  know  about  your  own  life. 

7.  Write  to  your  mother,  teUing  her  of  events  that  have  happened 
during  her  absence  from  home. 

8.  Write  to  a  friend  who  is  ill  in  a  hospital,  making  the  letter  as 
cheerful  as  possible.  Tell  him  about  the  things  that  are  happening  (both 
in  school  and  out  of  school)  in  which  you  think  he  will  be  interested. 

9.  Write  to  a  friend  an  account  of  your  trip  as  a  contestant  to  the 
state  meet  of  the  Interscholastic  League. 

10.  Write  to  your  family  your  impressions  after  the  first  day  in  the 
home  of  a  friend  or  relative  whom  you  have  never  before  visited. 

76.  Informal  notes.  Informal  notes  are  brief  friendly  letters. 
Instead  of  being  written  in  the  third  person  like  formal  notes, 
they  should  be  personal,  simple,  direct,  and  individual.  They 
may  be  on  any  subject  where  brief  friendly  communication  is 
desired.  The  arrangement  of  the  informal  note  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  friendly  letter.  The  main  difference  between  them  is 
that  in  the  informal  note  the  writer's  address  is  usually  placed 
below  the  signature  at  the  lower  left  side.  Sometimes  the 
street  and  number  only  are  given,  and  usually  the  date  is 
written  out  in  words  instead  of  in  numbers.  In  some  cases 
everything  but  the  date  is  omitted. 

The  following  are  examples  of  informal  notes: 

I 

AN  INFORMAL  INWITATION 

if-vt/v   uQy    ne/xL    <3^i  vcla.u,    €.i£to-{}'t'b   tw-e/ntu-li/baZ,    cvC   ^tv-eM/ 


LETTER-WRITING  1 2 1 

ti^&&K'-fncC,   a/yvcC   c/  6-&Li,&v-&  tkaX.    yon,  iv-itt  em.i\yu  tK&cKr.q 
hx/Vi  cincC  ktOA^vnc^  o/n  aee^awnt  oi  lii^  tidv-eio'. 

yo-iU(h  di/neexelu, 
286  S>vo^ee,t  ^Ueet  VUxcfc^vel  €ka^cUcA. 

II 
AN  INFORMAL  REPLY 

c/C  ui,  Ki/ncC  at  ucno  to-  aa/k,  we,  to  cii/n/n&x .  <J  a^kalt  {5-6 
ctetu^kt&cC  to  M-v^e,,  a,nci  a,kalC  etviou  kta,iLna  oi  77%. 
^^wyv^ton' a,  ytoA,  \yyv  ^oaitk  Cl^yveit&a,. 

1/oitVX,  a.i/7l(!,£Vc('U, 

,-7,,      /  .      y.         r,^      y.  jlavte^  S.  tiykitntu 

^sZoC-s/h  tw-emZv&tk 

III 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson  to  John  P n,  an  English  boy  who  had 

written  a  letter  oj  appreciation  to  Stevenson 

Valima,  Samoa,  December  3,  1893. 

Dear  Johnnie, — Well.  I  must  say  you  seem  to  be  a  tremendous 
fellow !  Before  I  was  eight  I  used  to  write  stories — or  dictate  them 
at  least — and  I  had  produced  an  excellent  history  of  Moses,  for 
which  I  got  £1  from  an  uncle ;  but  I  had  never  gone  the  length  of  a 
play,  so  you  have  beaten  me  fairly  on  my  own  ground.  I  hope  you 
may  continue  to  do  so,  and  thanking  you  heartily  for  your  nice 
letter,  I  shall  beg  you  to  believe  me  yours  truly, 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson.^ 

iFrom  "Letters  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson";  copyright,  1899,  1907,  1911, 
by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.    By  permission  of  the  publishers. 


122  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

To  introduce  the  writer's  daughter  to  Mr.  Tennyson 

My  dear  Mr.  Tennyson, —  I  cannot  let  my  daughter  pass  through 
London  without  asking  your  benevolence  to  give  her  the  sight  of 
your  face.  Her  husband,  Col.  Wm.  H.  Forbes  (himself  a  good 
soldier  in  the  Massachusetts  Volunteers  in  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion), and  Edith  set  forth  tomorrow  for  England,  France,  and  Italy, 
and  I  of  course  shall  not  think  that  they  have  seen  England  unless 
they  see  you.  I  pray  you  to  gratify  them  and  me  so  far.  You  shall 
not  write  a  line  the  less  and  I  shall  add  this  grace  to  your  genius. 
With  kindest  remembrance  of  my  brief  meeting  with  you. 

Yours  always, 

R.  W.  Emerson 

EXERCISE 

Write  four  of  the  following  informal  notes,  remembering  that 
they  should  differ  in  length  from  letters  of  friendship : 

1.  A  note  accompanying  a  present  to  a  friend. 

2.  A  note  of  thanks  to  a  relative  or  friend  for  a  present  just  received. 

3.  A  note  to  a  school  friend  who  has  met  with  an  accident  or  lost 
a  friend.  Express  your  sympathy  and  offer  your  help. 

4.  A  reply  to  a  note  of  sympathy. 

5.  Congratulations  to  a  friend  on  his  having  won  a  prize  at  school. 

6.  A  Christmas  greeting  to  an  absent  friend. 

7.  An  invitation  to  a  friend  in  a  distant  town  to  make  you  a  visit. 

8.  A  note  announcing  some  good  news. 

9.  A  note  asking  a  school  friend  to  join  you  on  an  excursion. 
10.  A  reply  to  a  note  from  a  friend  inviting  you  to  a  party. 

77.  Formal  notes.  Formal  notes  usually  pertain  to  the  eti- 
quette of  social  life.  Such  notes  should  be  written  in  the  third 
person.  The  month,  the  day  of  the  week,  and  the  hour  of  the 
event  for  which  the  invitation  is  intended  should  be  mentioned, 
though  the  year,  except  in  wedding  and  cdmmencement  invita- 
tions and  announcements,  is  usually  omitted.  The  date  and  the 


LETTER-W  RUING  123 

hour  should  always  be  spelled  out.  The  place  and  time  of 
writing  are  written  below  the  body  of  the  note  and  at  the  left 
side.  Everything  in  these  two  lines  except  the  street  numljer 
should  be  spelled  out. 

If  the  invitation  and  reply  given  on  pages  120  and  121  were 
to  be  expressed  in  formal  style,  they  would  appear  as  follows: 

I 
A  FORMAL  INVITATION 

?}'\v.  and  Tltio^.  3'ko-WM.^  ^-Aanclt&h  x&aiL&at  tli&  '^t&a^uie. 
of  Iflv.  fc^yyvta-  B.  li^kUyneAt' a-  &oiyvfiia/Ki^  at  cCi/yvneA>  cy)z  c/it/- 
ctau  €A>-em>i/yia,  ileto-6-eAy  tk&  tw-^rXi^-fj-w^t,  at  ^&v-em,  o'eioe.k^. 

^sZa6-eAy  tk&  niyyietteAttk 

II 

A  FORMAL  REPLY,  ACCEPTING 

Tfli.  ZO-kiXneu  a&S'&foti^  iv-itk  'fdieaaAi/i&  7Hv.  -anct  Tihv. 
^kancLteA,' Qy  kiAxci  Utv-CtaCvon  to  di/nnev  oo^  Siu^tatt  ^v-tyyiiAxo^, 
fefi-'^M/  tk&  tw-emtu-jixot,  at  a^eA/-&')i  v-' e^to-tk,. 

17  7{}aa^kiyyiatofv  cftveet 
€^to{f-e^v  tkey  t^^^■£/^^tv£.tk 

III 
A  FORMAL  REPLY,  DECLINING 

TJ-^v.  lO^ki/t'yit'u  le-qh&t^  tkat  k&  earvnot  aMytyat  ITK.  and 
?r(vo..  (^kandt&v'o'  kind  iA^v■iZati(yyv  to  dAAVYieA,  00^  <3^vu:lan^ 
ei'-cnim^,  €eZo{>-£.v  tk&  t■ll'^e/)^tl^-^vult. 

f  7  lO^oMAi/naX/yyv  ^tjitet 
€.9'to{}-t'h  tkt  t%\^tm,ti^ctk 


124  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 
Write  the  following  formal  notes : 

1.  A  note,  in  the  name  of  your  mother,  inviting  your  teacher  to  take 
tea  at  your  home.  Name  the  day  and  hour. 

2.  A  note,  in  the  name  of  the  class,  inviting  the  principal  of  the  high 
school  to  attend  a  class  supper. 

3.  A  note  accepting  an  invitation  to  a  dance. 

4.  A  note  declining  an  invitation  to  a  birthday  party. 

5.  A  note  accepting  an  invitation  to  the  graduating-exercises  of  a  school. 

78.  The  business  letter.  In  sections  71  and  72  the  correct 
form  for  both  social  and  business  letters  has  been  explained. 
In  the  present  section,  however,  a  few  other  details  applying 
particularly  to  the  business  letter  have  been  added. 

The  heading.  If  the  paper  used  contains  the  printed  business 
letterhead,  which  includes  the  address,  the  date  only  should 
be  written  where  the  full  heading  would  otherwise  be  placed. 
The  example  given  below  illustrates  the  correct  form. 


GEORGE  B.  POWELL  COMPANY 

49  COURT  STREET 

AUSTIN,  TEXAS 

November  25, 

1922 

The  salutation.    In  the  business  letter  there  are  various  forms 
of  salutation. 

1.  To  one  man:   Dear  Sir  or  My  dear  Sir. 

2.  To  a  firm:   Gentlemen  or  Dear  Sirs. 

3.  To  a  woman:   Dear  Madam  or  My  dear  Madam. 

4.  To  a  man  and  a  woman:   Dear  Sir  and  Madam. 

5.  To  a  friend  (in  a  semi-business  jorm) :    My  dear  Mr.  Bond. 

6.  To  a  group  or  firm  composed  of  women:    Mesdames  or  Ladies. 


LETTER-WRITING  125 

The  salutation  is  followed  by  a  colon.  A  colon  and  da.>h 
should  be  used  if  the  letter  proper  begins  on  the  line  with 
the  salutation.    A  semicolon  should  never  be  used  after  the 

salutation, 

1.  Mr.  .-Mberl  Radford 

168  River  Avenue 
Palo  Alto,  California 

Dear  Sir : 

We  believe,  etc. 

2,  James  P.  Quarles  &  Co., 

432  Fourth  Street  East, 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Gentlemen:  —  Since  you  have  not,  etc. 

The  letter  proper.  If  a  business  letter  is  written  in  answer  to 
another,  definite  reference  should  be  made  to  this  fact.  The 
following  forms  were  once  proper  for  such  reference:  instant, 
abbreviated  to  inst.,  meaning  the  present  month ;  ultimo,  abbre- 
viated to  ult.,  meaning  the  past  month ;  and  proximo,  abbre- 
viated to  prox.,  meaning  the  next  ynonth.  For  instance,  your 
letter  of  the  yth  ult.  means  your  letter  of  the  yth  of  last  month. 
Reputable  business  houses,  however,  now  avoid  even  the  full 
forms  and  prefer  to  insert  the  exact  date  in  some  such  way  as 
the  following:  In  reply  to  your  letter  of  November  20.  Com- 
plete sentences  should  be  written  throughout  the  letter.  Such 
forms  as  ^'  Yours  of  recent  date  received  and  contents  noted,'' 
"^^  Replying  to  your  favor  of  the  5th,  beg  to  say,''  are  considered 
discourteous  and  therefore  poor  business  form. 

The  complimentary  close.  The  complimentary  close,  which  is 
placed  one  line-space  below  the  body,  is  usually  one  of  the 
following  forms : 

1.  Yours  truly,  4.  Yours  respectfully, 

2.  Yours  very  truly,  5.  Respectfully  yours. 

3.  Very  truly  yours,  6.  Very  respectfully  yours. 


12  6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Only  the  first  word  begins  with  a  capital,  and  the  whole  is 
set  off  from  the  signature  by  a  comma. 

The  signature.  In  a  business  letter  the  writer's  name  should 
be  signed  in  full.  If  the  writer  is  a  woman,  she  should  take  care 
to  give  the  initials  or  name  by  which  she  may  be  addressed 
(see  section  72).  If  the  letter  is  written  by  an  individual  for  a 
company,  the  company's  name  should  be  signed,  with  the 
writer's  name  preceded  by  the  word  per  or  by  signed  under  it. 

1.  Yours  respectfully, 

2.  Yours  very  truly, 

3.  Very  truly  yours, 

Henderson,  McClure  &  Co. 

iSu  j.  S".  Citiv-aoci 

79.  Qualities  of  the  business  letter.  A  business  letter  should 
possess  four  qualities: 

First,  a  business  letter  should  be  clear,  stating  its  purpose  so 
distinctly  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  its  being  misunderstood. 

Secondly,  a  business  letter  should  be  complete,  containing 
every  detail  which  is  necessary  for  transacting  the  business  in 
hand.  If  any  questions  have  been  asked,  they  should  be  an- 
swered, and  no  necessary  detail  should  be  overlooked.  For 
instance,  if  we  order  a  watch  by  mail,  we  must  be  sure  to  give 
our  full  address,  specify  the  style  and  price  of  the  watch,  and 
indicate  the  method  by  which  we  shall  pay  for  it.  If  our  letter 
is  incomplete  in  any  of  these  details,  our  order  cannot  be  filled 
without  delay  and  trouble  to  ourselves  as  well  as  to  the  watch 
company. 


LETTER-WRITIXG  127 

Thirdly,  a  business  letter  should  be  concise.  Only  those  par- 
ticulars should  be  given  which  the  receiver  of  the  letter  needs 
to  know,  and  they  should  be  arranged  in  the  briefest,  most 
convenient  form. 

Fourthly,  a  business  letter  should  be  courteous.  Even  in 
cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  lodge  a  complaint  or  urge  the 
payment  of  a  debt,  care  should  be  used  to  word  the  letter  with 
all  possible  politeness. 

In  a  business  letter  we  should  be  particularly  careful  as  to 
arrangement,  punctuation,  spelling,  and  grammar.  Neglect  of 
these  matters,  which  seem  in  themselves  unimportant,  is  usually 
interpreted  as  an  indication  of  ignorance  or  lack  of  business 
courtesy. 

The  following  example  illustrates  the  brief  business  letter 
containing  an  order  for  goods: 

1420  Sequoia  Road 
Los  Angeles,  California 
October  31,  1922 
Home  Magazine 
64  Arcade  Street 
Chicago,  Illinois 

Dear  Sirs : 

You  will  find  inclosed  a  post-office  money  order  for  Si  1.50,  for 
which  please  send  me  the  following  books : 

'Tnterior  Decoration,"  by  Harriet  C.  Ames. 
"Landscape  Gardening,"  by  Myron  Forbes. 
'"Attractive  Bungalows,"  by  H.  C.  Mason. 

You  may  credit  me  with  the  remaining  S3. 00  by  extending  my  sub- 
scription to  the  Home  Magazine  for  one  year. 

Very  truly  yours, 

§ii^<x(yetk  /i-(X\eA>tcit 


128  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  example  printed  below  illustrates  the  letter  of  applica- 
tion for  a  position.  ^^^g  Elmwood  Avenue 

Indianapolis,  Indiana 

Hanson,  Fernald  and  Company  ^^  '^'  ^^^^ 

3  7  Commercial  Avenue 
Indianapolis,  Indiana 

Gentlemen : 

Yesterday  I  was  told  by  Mr.  Hodgdon,  who  is  in  your  sales  de- 
partment, that  you  are  in  need  of  a  boy  for  office  work.  Since  I 
am  desirous  of  obtaining  a  position  during  vacation  with  a  well- 
established  firm  where  there  will  be  chance  for  advancement,  I 
should  like  to  be  considered  an  applicant  for  the  position. 

I  have  just  graduated  from  the  junior  high  school  at  the  age  of 
fourteen.  My  grades  in  all  of  my  school  subjects  were  good.  I 
ranked  fifth  in  a  class  of  ninety-seven.  During  the  last  two  sum- 
mers I  have  been  employed  in  the  office  of  Boynton  and  Spencer. 
I  have  an  opportunity  to  work  for  them  again,  but  I  prefer  the 
training  that  I  hope  to  get  in  your  publishing-house.  I  believe  that 
I  am  capable  of  doing  the  work  required. 

If  you  care  for  references  regarding  my  character  and  my  fitness 
for  this  position,  you  may  write  or  telephone  my  high-school 
principal,  Mr.  Robert  C.  Dana,  146  Garfield  Street,  and  Mr.  J.  H. 
Boynton,  one  of  my  former  employers.  I  shall  be  glad  to  call  at 
your  office  if  you  wish  to  see  me. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

dltlmto-n  fi-.  iTlo^sZeAf 

EXERCISE 

Write  four  of  the  following  business  letters.  Try  to  make  them 
definite  and  courteous. 

1.  An  answer  to  an  advertisement  for  a  clerk,  stating  your  quali- 
fications and  experience  and  giving  references. 

2.  A  letter  to  a  superintendent  of  schools,  applying  for  a  position 
as  teacher.  State  education  and  experience  and  give  references. 


LETTER-WRITING  129 

3.  A  letter  to  some  person  of  influence,  asking  for  a  recommenda- 
tion with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  position. 

4.  A  letter  renewing  your  subscription  to  some  newspaper  or  maga- 
zine that  comes  to  your  home. 

5.  A  letter  to  the  proprietor  of  a  summer  hotel,  inquiring  about 
rooms  and  terms. 

6.  A  letter  to  a  clothing-house,  calling  attention  to  a  mistake  in 
filling  an  order. 

7.  A  letter  to  an  insurance  company,  stating  that  some  property 
your  father  owns  has  been  destroyed  and  asking  that  a  representative 
of  the  company  be  sent  to  adjust  the  claim. 

8.  A  letter  to  a  manufacturer  of  athletic  goods,  ordering  suits  for 
a  school  team. 

9.  A  letter  applying  for  a  position  as  stenographer  in  the  office  of 
a  local  firm. 

10.  A  letter  requesting  immediate  payment  of  a  bill  owed  you  and 
long  overdue. 

11.  In  reply  to  a  letter  of  inquiry  from  some  firm  about  your  former 
stenographer  write  a  letter  highly  recommending  her  for  the  position 
that  she  is  seeking. 

12.  A  letter  advertising  some  article  in  a  furnishing-store. 

13.  A  letter  to  the  customers  of  some  store,  notifying  them  of  a 
change  in  the  firm  and  asking  them  for  their  continued  patronage. 

14.  A  letter  to  a  firm  dealing  in  sporting-goods  or  millinery,  asking 
them  to  send  you  a  catalogue. 

15.  A  letter  to  the  manager  of  an  athletic  team  in  another  towTi, 
proposing  to  play  a  game. 

16.  A  letter  to  the  postmaster  of  your  town,  notifying  him  of  a 
change  from  your  present  address  to  another  address  in  a  different  state. 

17.  A  letter  declining  some  office  offered  you  in  your  school. 

18.  A  letter  to  the  registrar  of  a  college  or  university,  asking  him  to 
explain  to  you  the  entrance  requirements. 

80.  Summary.  The  letter  is  a  reliable  index  to  the  character 
and  the  education  of  the  writer.  For  this  reason  letter-writing 
deserves  special  study. 

Letters  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  classes:  social 
letters  and  business  letters. 


130  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  parts  of  the  letter  are  (i)  the  heading,  (2)  the  introduc- 
tion, (3)  the  letter  proper,  (4)  the  conclusion,  and  (5)  the 
superscription. 

Good  form  and  correctness  are  essential  in  all  letters. 

Friendly  letters  should  be  natural  and  interesting,  and  at- 
tractive in  form.  They  should  contain  something  of  description, 
narration,  and  exposition  bearing  on  the  personal  experiences 
of  the  writer  and  his  correspondent.  Informal  notes  are  short 
friendly  letters.  Formal  notes  should  be  brief  and  should  be 
written  in  the  third  person. 

Business  letters  should  be  clear,  complete,  concise,  and 
courteous. 


PART  TWO 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PARAGRAPH 

81.  Value  of  detailed  study  of  the  paragraph.  The  para- 
graph, which  is  the  unit  of  connected  discourse,  is  a  composi- 
tion on  a  small  scale.  The  detailed  study  of  it.  therefore,  will 
give  us  a  better  understanding  of  composition-writing.  Many 
writers  insist,  in  fact,  that  constant  practice  in  composing 
paragraphs  is  the  surest  way  of  gaining  the  ability  to  write  well. 

82.  Definition  of  the  paragraph.  A  paragraph  is  a  group  of 
properly  related  sentences  that  develop  a  single  topic  effec- 
tively. Clear  and  logical  thought  on  any  subject  tends  to  re- 
solve itself  into  groups  of  connected  ideas.  These  ideas,  when 
expressed  in  properly  related  sentences,  constitute  a  paragraph. 
By  means  of  the  paragraph  each  topic  that  is  included  in  the 
subject  of  the  whole  composition  is  developed  and  made  to 
stand  out  with  definiteness  in  relation  to  the  other  topics  of  the 
composition.  Frequently  a  composition,  such  as  a  short  edi- 
torial or  a  brief  anecdote,  demands  only  one  paragraph.  More 
often,  however,  it  requires  several  paragraphs  for  the  adequate 
development  of  its  subject. 

A  paragraph  is  indicated  by  beginning  the  first  line  slightly 
farther  to  the  right  than  the  remaining  lines.  The  space  thus 
left  is  called  the  indentation.  Though  the  paragraph  is  pri- 
marily much  more  than  a  device  for  pleasing  the  reader's  eye 
and  momentarily  resting  his  attention,  it  serves  both  of  these 
important  purposes. 

131 


132  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

83.  Length  of  the  paragraph.  The  length  of  the  paragraph 
is  determined  largely  by  two  considerations:  the  importance 
and  the  complexity  of  the  topic  and  the  length  of  the  whole 
composition. 

In  general,  each  principal  topic  requires  a  paragraph  to 
itself,  the  length  of  which  depends  on  the  importance  of  the 
topic.  When  the  subject  is  complex,  the  group  of  related  ideas 
to  be  combined  in  one  paragraph  may  be  large ;  in  this  case 
special  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  paragraph  from  becom- 
ing involved. 

Although  the  length  of  the  paragraph  depends  chiefly  on  the 
topic,  we  must  take  into  account  also  the  length  of  the  whole 
composition.  For  instance,  in  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  the  topics  discussed  may  be  (i)  Boyhood, 
(2)  Education,  (3)  Early  Writings,  (4)  Search  for  Health, 
(5)  Later  Writings.  If  the  composition  is  to  be  but  one  hundred 
and  fifty  words  in  length,  all  the  material  may  properly  be  put 
into  one  paragraph.  If,  however,  the  composition  is  to  be  eight 
hundred  words  long,  five  paragraphs  of  varying  length  will 
be  necessary. 

No  hard-and-fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  length  of 
the  paragraph.  We  are  the  creators  of  our  compositions,  and  we 
must  decide  the  length  of  our  paragraphs  in  accordance  with 
our  own  development  of  the  thought.  Well-constructed  long 
paragraphs  tend  to  give  weight  and  dignity  to  a  piece  of  writing, 
whereas  brief  paragraphs  are  usually  felt  to  be  less  formal. 
Short  paragraphs  contribute  vigor  and  movement  to  narration. 

A  special  rule  should  be  observed  in  paragraphing  conversa- 
tion. Each  separate  speech,  together  with  the  author's  com- 
ment (if  any  is  included),  should  be  written  as  a  separate 
paragraph. 

84.  Requirements  of  the  paragraph.  A  paragraph  should 
be  constructed  according  to  three  principles :  ( i )  unity,  which 


THE  TARAGRAPH  133 

has  to  do  with  the  choice  of  material  with  a  view  to  complete- 
ness; (2)  coherence,  which  has  to  do  with  the  arrangement  of 
material  with  a  view  to  clearness ;  and  (3)  emphasis,  which  has 
to  do  with  the  arrangement  of  material  with  a  view  to  force. 

85.  Unity  in  the  paragraph.  Unity  requires  that  all  the  sen- 
tences composing  a  paragraph  shall  bear  directly  on  the  central 
thought.  If  the  group  of  sentences  contains  a  single  sentence 
that  does  not  contribute  its  share  of  meaning  toward  the  devel- 
opment of  the  subject  of  the  paragraph,  unity  is  violated,  and 
therefore  the  group  of  sentences  is  not  really  a  paragraph. 

86.  Means  of  securing  unity  in  the  paragraph.  The  chief 
means  of  securing  unity  in  the  paragraph  are  two  in  number : 
(1)  the  adequate  development  of  a  single  topic  and  (2)  the 
avoidance  of  digressions. 

87.  The  topic  sentence.  Since  a  paragraph  is  the  develop- 
ment of  a  single  topic,  it  must  have  a  clearly  defined  central 
idea  upon  which  every  one  of  its  sentences  directly  bears.  This 
central  idea  is  usually  expressed  definitely  in  one  of  the  sen- 
tences of  the  paragraph,  called  the  topic  sentence.  The  topic 
sentence  is  most  effective  when  short  and  striking.  If  the  cen- 
tral idea  is  not  formally  stated,  it  must  be  clearly  implied. 

88.  Position  of  the  topic  sentence.  The  topic  sentence  is 
often  placed  first  in  the  paragraph,  especially  when  a  principle 
is  to  be  illustrated,  a  general  idea  is  to  be  made  clear  by  argu- 
ment, or  a  formal  proposition  is  to  be  amplified.  It  is  so  placed 
in  the  following  illustrations : 

I.  [Topic  sentence]  The  purpose  of  literary  work,  like  its  mood 
or  spirit,  niay  be  various.  In  a  measure  it  varies  with  the  depart- 
ment of  literature  to  which  the  work  belongs.  The  purpose  of  his- 
tory, which  brings  before  us  the  achievements  of  the  past,  is  chiefly 
instruction.  The  oratory  of  the  pulpit  and  the  forum  aims  at  per- 
suasion. Fiction  aims  primarily  at  entertainment,  though  it  may 
also  be  made  the  vehicle  for  religious,  sociological,  or  nwral  teach- 


134  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ings.  Poetry  aims  at  pleasure  by  means  of  melody,  felicity  of  ex- 
pression, the  picturing  of  moods  and  scenes,  and  the  narration  of 
interesting  incidents  or  important  events.  When  the  purpose  of  a 
production  is  clearly  apprehended  we  are  prepared  to  judge  of 
the  wisdom  of  the  author  in  his  choice  and  adaptation  of  means. — 
F.  V.  N.  Painter,  ''Elementary  Guide  to  Literary  Criticism" 

2.  [Topic  sentence]  The  j  or  est  is  a  sanitary  agent.  It  is  con- 
stantly eliminating  impurities  from  the  earth  and  the  air.  Trees 
check,  sweep,  and  filter  from  the  air  quantities  of  filthy,  germ-laden 
dust.  Their  leaves  absorb  poisonous  gases  from  the  air.  Roots 
assist  in  drainage,  and  absorb  impurities  from  the  soil.  Roots  give 
off  acids,  and  these  acids,  together  with  the  acids  released  by  the 
fallen,  decaying  leaves,  have  a  sterilizing  effect  upon  the  soil.  Trees 
help  to  keep  the  earth  sweet  and  clean,  and  water  which  comes 
from  a  forested  watershed  is  likely  to  be  pure.  IVIany  unsanitary 
areas  have  been  redeemed  and  rendered  healthy  by  tree-planting, 
— Enos  a.  Mills,  ''The  Spell  of  the  Rockies "^ 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  place  the  topic  sentence  last 
instead  of  first,  especially  to  secure  climax,  or  to  state  the  cen- 
tral idea  after  the  mind  has  been  prepared  for  it  by  explanatory 
details.  Such  a  placing  of  the  topic  sentence  usually  results  in 
an  increase  of  emphasis.  The  topic  sentence  in  the  following 
paragraph  is  stated  at  the  end. 

The  judge,  who  was  a  shrewd  fellow,  winked  at  the  manifest  in- 
iquity of  the  decision,  and,  when  the  court  was  dismissed,  went 
privily  and  bought  up  all  the  pigs  that  could  be  had  for  love  or 
money.  In  a  few  days  his  lordship's  town-house  was  observed  to 
be  on  fire.  The  thing  took  wing,  and  now  there  was  nothing  to  be 
seen  but  fire  in  every  direction.  Fuel  and  pigs  grew  enormously 
dear  all  over  the  district.  The  insurance  officers,  one  and  all,  shut 
up  shop.  People  built  slighter  and  slighter  every  day,  until  it  was 
feared  that  the  very  science  of  architecture  would  in  no  long  time 
be  lost  to  the  world.  Thus  this  custom  of  firing  houses  continued, 
till  in  process  of  time,  says  my  manuscript,  a  sage  arose,  like  our 

lUsed  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  135 

Locke,  who  made  a  discovery  that  the  llesh  of  swine,  or  indeed  of 
any  other  animal,  might  be  cooked  {burnt,  as  they  called  it)  with- 
out the  necessity  of  consuming  a  whole  house  to  dress  it.  Then 
first  began  the  rude  form  of  a  gridiron.  Roasting  by  the  string  or 
spit  came  in  a  century  or  two  later,  I  forget  in  whose  dynasty. 
[Topic  sentence]  By  such  slow  degrees,  concludes  the  manu- 
script, do  the  most  useful  and  seemingly  the  most  obvious  arts 
make  their  way  among  mankind. — Cii.arles  La.mb,  "A  Disserta- 
tion upon  Roast  Pig" 

Xow  and  then  the  topic  sentence  is  stated  at  the  first  of  the 
paragraph  and  again,  in  different  words,  at  the  last.  This  repe- 
tition tends  to  give  clearness  to  the  entire  paragraph  thought, 
as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  illustration : 

[Topic  sentence]  The  expression  of  our  thoughts  by  means  of 
language  is  a  practice  of  so  long  standing  that  we  accept  it  almost 
as  an  instinctive  performance.  Nobody  can  remember  when  or 
how  he  learned  to  talk.  Indeed,  it  is  seldom  possible  to  recall  even 
those  moments  in  later  life  when,  after  the  art  of  speech  had  been 
acquired,  we  became  familiar  with  particular  words  w^hich,  as  we 
know  well  enough,  must  have  been  from  time  to  time  added  to  our 
personal  vocabulary.  We  can,  to  be  sure,  remember  when  we  were 
first  introduced  to  the  technical  language  of  some  particular 
science,  as  mathematics  or  medicine  or  political  economy.  We  may 
even  recollect  the  person  from  whom  we  first  heard  a  new  phrase 
which  has  since  become  a  part  of  our  habitual  stock.  And  all  of 
us  are  aware  of  specific  additions  to  our  vocabulary  from  that 
ephemeral  element  in  everyday  speech  known  as  "slang,"  which  is 
constantly  providing  us  with  strange  terms  that  force  themselves 
upon  our  attention  because  everybody  employs  them,  and  that 
rapidly  die  out  only  to  be  replaced  by  equally  grotesque  novelties. 
But  the  sum  total  of  our  retrospect  accounts  for  only  the  minutest 
fraction  of  our  whole  outfit  of  words  and  phrases.  [Topic  sentence 
repeated  in  other  words]  And  were  it  not  for  our  observation  of 
infants,  who  cannot  speak  at  all,  and  of  young  children,  who  are 
painfully  learning  the  art  of  speech,  we  should  inevitably  believe 


136  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

that  the  expression  of  our  thoughts  in  language  was  spontaneous 
action,  quite  independent  of  our  own  will  and  exertions,  like 
breathing  or  the  circulation  of  the  blood. — Greenough  and  Kit- 
TREDGE,  "Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech"^ 

In  many  cases,  especially  in  paragraphs  of  description  or 
narration,  the  topic  is  not  actually  stated  in  any  part  of  the 
paragraph.  But  if  we  have  had  a  single  topic  clearly  in  mind 
throughout  the  writing,  the  reader  can  find  it  without  trouble. 
A  descriptive  paragraph  may  be  unified  by  means  of  a  well- 
defined  single  impression.  Though  this  central  idea  may  no- 
where be  stated  as  a  topic  sentence,  it  nevertheless  forms  the 
subject  of  the  paragraph.  In  the  following  paragraph  the  cen- 
tral idea  that  is  clearly  implied  is  'Hhe  gorgeousness  of  a  sunset 
on  the  plains  of  the  Southwest." 

When  supper  was  over  the  sun  was  almost  down  and  it  was 
seven  o'clock,  yet  there  was  still  no  decay  in  the  brilliance  of  the 
light.  She  went  to  the  window  and  looked  out,  and  the  sight  drew 
her,  in  spite  of  herself,  into  the  open.  She  was  in  the  emerald 
heart  of  a  world  of  coral-pink.  Softer  than  scarlet,  more  glowing 
than  pink,  the  earth  lay  suffused,  tinted  like  the  embers  of  a  dying 
fire.  Gradually  the  plains  became  one  rose ;  deep  purple  lowered 
in  the  sky,  orange  and  gold  and  pearl ;  yet  still  the  marvel  and  the 
richness  of  the  rose  claimed  them  and  won  them  all,  won  them  into 
its  heart.  Dorothy  watched  it ;  and  for  long  minutes  there  was  no 
change,  no  diminution  of  its  irresistible  splendor ;  the  beauty  was 
flaunted  unendurably,  as  if  God  would  forgive  the  world  no  jot  of 
abasement  before  his  terrible  glory.  Then  slowly  a  gray  veil  began 
to  film  the  heavens ;  for  a  moment,  as  the  rose  faded,  the  bright 
colors  gleamed  and  displayed  themselves  again  in  bands  and 
streaks  and  burning,  prismatic  spots ;  then,  suddenly,  as  if  the  fire 
were  dead,  the  wind  blew  the  embers  black,  and  night  fell. — 
James  Weber  Linn,  "The  Girl  at  Duke's "- 

1  Used  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  publishers. 
-  Used  by  permission  of  McClure's  Magazine. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  137 

EXERCISES 


Read  carefully  the  following  paragraphs  and  point  out  in  each 
the  topic  sentence : 

1.  Dogs  have  the  same  sensitiveness  that  we  associate  with  well- 
bred  men  and  women.  Their  politeness  is  remarkable.  Offer  a  dog 
water  when  he  is  not  thirsty,  and  he  will  almost  always  take  a  lap  or 
two,  just  out  of  civility,  and  to  show  his  gratitude.  I  know  a  group  of 
dogs  that  never  forget  to  come  and  tell  their  mistress  when  they  have 
had  their  dinner,  feeling  sure  that  she  will  sympathize  with  them  ;  and 
if  they  have  failed  to  get  it,  they  will  notify  her  immediately  of  the 
omission.  If  you  happen  to  step  on  a  dog's  tail  or  paw,  how  eagerly — 
after  one  irrepressible  yelp  of  pain — will  he  tell  you  by  his  caresses 
that  he  knows  you  did  not  mean  to  hurt  him  and  forgives  you  !  — 
Henry  C.  Merwin,  "Dogs  and  Men"^ 

2.  Nature  is  filled  with  poetry.  The  great  poet  is  God,  and  he  has 
filled  the  universe  with  rhythm,  harmony,  beauty.  Human  poems  are 
but  faulty  shells  gathered  on  the  shore  of  the  divine  ocean  of  poetry. 
The  stars  are  the  poetry  of  the  skies.  The  planets  and  the  stellar  sys- 
tems that  circle  in  their  glorious  orbits  preserve  a  sublime  harmony  of 
movement.  The  light  that  reaches  us  from  distant  worlds  comes  to  us 
in  rhythmical  wavelets.  Every  human  life  is  a  poem  —  often  an  amus- 
ing comedy,  but  still  oftener  a  moving  tragedy.  The  tender  friend- 
ships, the  innocent  joys,  the  noble  aspirations,  the  high  achievements 
of  men,  form  the  lyric  poetry  of  human  existence.  The  rippling  of  the 
forest  stream  with  its  shady  banks  of  fern,  the  rhythmical  roll  and 
heavy  roar  of  the  ocean  surges,  are  the  poetry  of  the  sparkling  waters. 
The  audible  silence  and  mysterious  whisperings  of  the  dark  and  majestic 
forests,  the  modest  hiding  of  the  little  violet  that  gives  charm  to  some 
neglected  spot, — this  is  the  poetry  of  the  woods  and  fields.  Whether 
we  look  upon  earth,  or  air,  or  sky,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  unwritten 
poetry  of  God  is  there.  In  our  best  moments  we  feel  its  presence. — 
its  mute  yet  eloquent  appeal  to  our  higher  natures.  It  lifts  us  up  into 
fellowship  with  him  who  thus  speaks  to  us.  — F.  V.  N.  Painter,  "Ele- 
mentary Guide  to  Literary  Criticism" 

lUsed  by  permission  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  Press,  publishers. 


138  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  The  inn  at  Precy  is  the  worst  inn  in  France.  Not  even  in  Scot- 
land have  I  found  worse  fare.  It  was  kept  by  a  brother  and  sister, 
neither  of  whom  was  out  of  their  teens.  The  sister,  so  to  speak,  pre- 
pared a  meal  for  us  ;  the  brother,  who  had  been  tippUng,  came  in  and 
brought  with  him  a  tipsy  butcher,  to  entertain  us  as  we  ate.  We  found 
pieces  of  loo-warm  pork  among  the  salad,  and  pieces  of  unknown 
yielding  substance  in  the  ragout.  The  butcher  entertained  us  with  pic- 
tures of  Parisian  Hfe,  with  which  he  professed  himself  well  acquainted ; 
the  brother  sitting  the  while  on  the  edge  of  the  billiard  table,  toppling 
precariously,  and  sucking  the  stump  of  a  cigar.  In  the  midst  of  these 
diversions  bang  went  a  drum  past  the  house,  and  a  hoarse  voice  began 
issuing  a  proclamation.  It  was  a  man  with  marionettes  announcing  a 
performance  for  that  afternoon. — Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  "An 
Inland  Voyage"^ 

II 

Write  a  paragraph  of  from  six  to  twenty  sentences  developing 
one  of  the  following  topic  sentences : 

1.  The  training  of  a  Boy  Scout  is  good  preparation  for  citizenship. 

2.  I  enjoy  reading  modern  poetry. 

3.  The  view  from  my  study  window  is  entertaining. 

4.  Wide  reading  is  a  great  help  in  learning  to  write. 

5.  Modern  inventions  have  revolutionized  home  life. 

6.  Our  car  is  always  giving  us  a  surprise. 

7.  I  have  discovered  a  substitute  for  going  to  the  movies  as  a  form 
of  entertainment. 

8.  We  have  planned  a  balanced  diet  of  home  reading. 

9.  I  have  recently  become  interested  in  studying  our  native  birds. 
10.  I  have  thought  of  a  plan  for  increasing  my  vocabulary. 

89.  The  avoidance  of  digressions.  We  must  not  yield  to  the 
temptation  to  run  away  from  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph, 
however  interesting  to  us  may  be  some  of  the  distantly  con- 
nected thoughts  which  arise  in  our  mind.  We  may  be  well  in- 
formed about  these  associated  facts  and  may  wish  to  show  our 

^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


THE  PARAGR.\PH  139 

knowledge,  but  we  must  remember  that  digression  violates 
unity.  In  the  following  paragraph,  note  the  digressions  and  ob- 
serve the  way  in  which  the  writer  was  led  on  farther  and 
farther  from  his  topic. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  of  modern  times 
is  that  of  an  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  island  is  sometimes 
known  under  the  name  of  "Dawson's  Island."  It  is  on  no  map, 
but  is  located  about  twenty-three  hundred  miles  from  the  coast  of 
South  America,  and  it  is  almost  directly  south  of  Lower  California. 
The  discovery  is  considered  by  many  to  be  next  in  interest  to  that 
of  the  revealing  of  the  walls  of  ancient  Troy.  The  massive  ruins  of 
Troy  in  all  stages  of  decay  hide  untold  mysteries  of  an  aboriginal 
race,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  highly  civilized.  This  fact  is 
shown  from  its  statuary  and  architectural  remains.  The  story 
of  the  famous  siege  of  Troy  told  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad  is  therefore 
based  on  historic  facts.  The  story  of  Troy,  it  should  be  said,  is  not 
the  only  story  of  the  ancient  Greeks  which  is  based  on  fact,  for  we 
now  know  that  the  account  of  the  labyrinth  and  the  Minotaur  has 
historic  foundation.  A  German  geographer  has  visited  this  Pacific 
island,  and  tells  of  its  wonderful  features  of  interest.  The  island  is 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  is  about  ten  miles  long  by  five  miles  wide. 
On  one  side  the  shore  is  banked  with  volcanoes,  and  in  the  middle 
of  a  vast  plain  which  lies  beyond  is  a  volcano  so  perfectly  shaped 
that  it  might  have  been  modeled  by  the  hand  of  man.  These  im- 
mense volcanoes  have  been  extinct  for  many  years. 


EXERCISES 

I 

Select  from  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  three  or  more  para- 
graphs in  which  the  principle  of  unity  is  well  illustrated.  Point  out 
the  topic  sentence,  if  it  is  expressed,  or  formulate  a  statement  of 
the  topic  in  your  own  words.  Be  prepared  to  show  that  in  each 
paragraph  the  writer  keeps  strictly  to  the  central  thought  and 
avoids  digressions. 


140  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  observing 
carefully  the  means  of  securing  unity  : 

1.  An  Amusing  Incident  I  Recently  Observed. 

2.  The  Five-O'clock  Subway  Crowd. 

3.  Our  Last  Assignment  in  Domestic  Science. 

4.  Our  Last  Assignment  in  Manual  Training. 

5.  An  Interesting  Animal  Trait. 

6.  Why  a  Writer  Should  Avoid  the  Use  of  Slang. 

7.  Waste  on  the  Farm. 

8.  What  is  Pasteurized  Milk? 

9.  Our  Best  Bird  Friend. 

10.  The  Process  of  a  Telephone  Call. 

90.  Means  of  securing  coherence  in  the  paragraph.  Coher- 
ence in  the  paragraph  requires  that  the  material  shall  be  so 
arranged  as  to  make  the  relation  of  the  sentences  and  the  mean- 
ing of  the  paragraph  as  a  whole  unmistakably  clear.  The  chief 
means  of  securing  coherence  are  two  in  number:  (i)  correct 
arrangement  of  material  for  the  logical  development  of  the 
topic  sentence  and  (2)  the  use  of  connecting  words  and  phrases 
to  show  the  relation  of  the  parts. 

91.  Logical  development  of  the  topic  sentence.  Since  order 
is  the  fundamental  means  of  securing  coherence,  we  should  try 
to  develop  our  paragraphs  in  a  natural  and  logical  way.  The 
chief  means  of  developing  the  topic  sentence  are  (i)  by  repe- 
tition, (2)  by  details,  (3)  by  definition,  (4)  by  specific  exam- 
ples, (5)  by  comparison  and  contrast,  and  (6)  by  supporting  the 
statement  with  reasons.  In  many  paragraphs  the  topic  sentence 
is  best  developed  by  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these 
methods. 

92.  Repetition.  When  the  subject  treated  in  the  paragraph 
is  somewhat  obscure,  or  for  any  reason  needs  emphasis,  it  may 
be  repeated  in  other  words  immediately  after  the  topic  sentence, 


THE  PARAGRAPH  141 

or  sometimes  later  in  the  paragraph.  In  writing  we  should 
avoid  overworking  this  method.  The  following  paragraph 
illustrates  the  use  of  repetition : 

The  Chinaman  is  probably  the  most  frugal  and  least  wasteful 
man  on  earth.  He  has  to  be.  There  are  believed  to  be  some  four 
hundred  million  Chinamen  in  his  corner  of  the  earth,  and  they  lack 
capital,  machinery,  and  the  means  of  communication  and  of  inter- 
national interchange  of  produce ;  so  that  their  communities  are  too 
much  self-contained  and  cannot  earn  largely.  They  must  save  or 
starve,  and  even  with  all  their  prudence  and  thrift  they  sometimes 
starve.  At  the  hour  of  writing  this  paper,  a  fearful  famine  is  going 
on  in  China  and  many  people  are  dying  of  starvation.  One  never 
sees  a  Chinaman  lose  anything.  China  that  he  handles  is  never 
chipped  or  broken.  When  he  supplies  food,  he  has  exactly  enough, 
not  too  much  or  too  little.  With  him  thrift  is  an  exact  science. — 
W.  Cameron  Forbes,  "The  Romance  of  Business"^ 

93.  Details.  One  of  the  most  common  methods  of  paragraph 
development,  especially  in  exposition  and  description,  consists 
in  giving  the  details  of  which  the  topic  sentence  is  the  general 
statement.  This  method  is  employed  in  the  following  exposi- 
tory paragraph  : 

[Topic  sentence]  Shakespeare  lived  in  a  period  of  change.  In 
religion,  politics,  literature,  and  commerce,  in  the  habits  of  daily 
living,  in  the  world  of  ideas,  his  lifetime  witnessed  continual  change 
and  movement.  When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne,  six  years  be- 
fore he  was  born,  England  was  still  largely  Catholic,  as  it  had  been 
for  nine  centuries ;  when  she  died  England  was  Protestant,  and  by 
the  date  of  Shakespeare's  death  it  was  well  on  the  way  to  becoming 
Puritan.  The  Protestant  Reformation  had  worked  nearly  its  full 
course  of  revolution  in  ideas,  habits,  and  beliefs.  The  authority 
of  the  Church  had  been  replaced  by  that  of  the  Bible,  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible,  superbly  translated  by  Shakespeare's  contemporaries. 
Within  his  lifetime,  again,  England  had  attained  a  national  unity 

lUsed  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


142  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  international  importance  heretofore  unknown.  The  Spanish 
Armada  had  been  defeated,  the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland 
united,  and  the  first  colony  established  in  America.  Even  more  rev- 
olutionary had  been  the  assertion  of  national  greatness  in  literature 
and  thought.  The  Italian  Renaissance,  following  the  rediscovery 
of  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  had  extended  its  influence  to  Eng- 
land early  in  the  century,  but  only  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 
did  it  bring  full  harvest.  The  names  that  crowd  the  next  fifty 
years  represent  fine  native  endowments,  boundless  aspiration,  and 
also  novelty, — as  Spenser  in  poetry,  Bacon  in  philosophy.  Hooker 
in  theology.  In  commerce  as  well  as  in  letters  there  was  this  same 
activity  and  innovation.  It  was  a  time  of  commercial  prosperity, 
of  increase  in  comfort  and  luxury,  of  the  growth  of  a  powerful 
commercial  class,  of  large  fortunes  and  large  benefactions.  What- 
ever your  status,  your  birth,  trade,  profession,  residence,  religion, 
education,  or  property,  in  the  year  1564  you  had  a  better  chance  to 
change  these  than  any  of  your  ancestors  had  ;  and  there  was  more 
chance  than  there  had  ever  been  that  your  son  would  improve  his 
inheritance.  The  individual  man  had  long  been  boxed  up  in  guild, 
church,  or  feudal  system;  now  the  covers  were  opened,  and  the 
new  opportunity  bred  daring,  initiative,  and  ambition.  The  ex- 
ploits of  the  Elizabethan  sea  rovers  still  stir  us  with  the  thrill  of 
adventure;  but  adventure  and  vicissitude  were  hardly  less  the 
share  of  the  merchant,  priest,  poet,  or  politician.  The  individual 
has  had  no  such  opportunity  for  fame  in  England  before  or  since. 
The  nineteenth  century,  which  saw  the  Industrial  Revolution,  the 
triumphs  of  steam  and  electricity,  and  the  discoveries  of  natural 
science,  is  the  only  period  that  has  equaled  the  Elizabethan  in 
the  rapidity  of  its  changes  in  ideas  and  in  the  conditions  of  liv- 
ing; and  even  that  era  of  change  offered  relatively  fewer  new 
impulses  to  individual  greatness  than  the  fifty  years  of  Shake- 
speare's life. — Neilson  and  Thorndike,  ''The  Facts  about 
Shakespeare"^ 

In  the  following  descriptive  paragraph,  details  have  been 
used  to  develop  the  topic  sentence : 

lUsed  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  publishers. 


THE  PAR7\GRAPH  143 

[Topic  sentence]  The  appearance  of  the  island  when  I  came  on 
deck  next  morning  was  altogether  changed.  Although  the  breeze 
had  now  utterly  failed,  we  had  made  a  great  deal  of  way  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  were  now  lying  becalmed  about  half  a  mile 
to  the  southeast  of  the  low  eastern  coast.  Gray-colored  woods  cov- 
ered a  large  part  of  the  surface.  This  even  tint  was  indeed  broken 
up  by  streaks  of  yellow  sand-bank  in  the  lower  lands,  and  by  many 
tall  trees  of  the  pine  family,  outtopping  the  others — some  singly, 
some  in  clumps ;  but  the  general  coloring  was  uniform  and  sad. 
The  hills  ran  up  clear  above  the  vegetation  in  spires  of  naked  rock. 
All  were  strangely  shaped,  and  the  Spyglass,  which  was  by  three 
or  four  hundred  feet  the  tallest  on  the  island,  was  likewise  the 
strangest  in  configuration,  running  up  sheer  from  almost  every 
side,  and  then  suddenly  cut  off  at  the  top  like  a  pedestal  to  put  a 
statue  on. —  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  ''Treasure  Island'" 

94.  Definition.  The  topic  sentence  is  often  too  concise  to 
express  exactly  the  idea  about  which  the  author  wishes  to 
write.  Whenever  this  is  true,  it  is  necessary  to  define  by  re- 
striction or  illustrate  by  enlargement  the  meaning  of  the  topic 
sentence.  This  method  of  paragraph  development  is  most  often 
used  in  formal  exposition,  such  as  the  following  passage : 

[Topic  sentence]  Criticism,  as  its  etymology  indicates,  is  the 
act  oj  judging.  Literary  criticism  endeavors  to  form  a  correct  esti- 
mate of  literary  productions.  Its  endeavor  is  to  see  a  piece  of 
writing  as  it  is.  It  brings  literary  productions  into  comparison 
with  recognized  principles  and  ideal  standards ;  it  investigates  them 
in  their  matter,  form,  and  spirit ;  and,  as  a  result  of  this  process,  it 
determines  their  merits  and  their  defects.  The  end  of  literary 
criticism  is  not  fault-finding  but  truth.  The  critic  should  be  more 
than  a  censor  or  caviler.  He  should  discover  and  make  known 
whatever  is  commendable  or  excellent.  At  its  best,  criticism  is  not 
a  mere  record  of  general  impressions  but  the  statement  of  an  in- 
telligent judgment.  It  is  not  biased  or  vitiated  by  prejudice,  igno- 
rance, or  self-interest ;  but,  proceeding  according  to  well-defined 

lUsed  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


144  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

principles,  it  is  able  to  trace  the  steps  by  which  it  reaches  its  ulti- 
mate conclusions. — F.  V.  N.  Painter,  ^'Elementary  Guide  to 
Literary  Criticism" 

Frequently,  as  in  the  paragraph  just  given,  the  writer  is  care- 
ful to  explain  what  the  idea  or  topic  does  not  include  as  well 
as  what  it  does  include. 

95.  Specific  examples.  Often  the  topic  sentence  is  the  state- 
ment of  a  general  fact  which  requires  for  its  clear  development 
one  or  more  specific  examples.  Notice  how  the  author  of  the 
following  paragraph  has  employed  this  method : 

[Topic  sentence]  All  through  life  a  person  may  find  that  what 
he  wants  brings  him  into  conflict  with  others.  When  he  is  a  small 
child  his  appetite  for  candy  conflicts  with  the  ideas  of  health  held 
by  his  parents.  When  he  is  a  boy  in  school  his  effort  to  boss  all 
sports  causes  trouble  with  his  playmates.  In  manhood  his  attempt 
to  have  his  own  way  brings  conflicts  with  his  family  and  associates. 
If  in  the  effort  to  catch  a  train  he  drives  his  automobile  at  high 
speed  through  the  city  streets,  he  has  trouble  with  the  police.  If 
he  tries  to  avoid  heavy  financial  loss  by  offering  for  sale  spoiled 
food,  the  disagreeable  taste  of  which  he  has  concealed  by  a  liberal 
mixture  of  chemicals,  he  is  likely  to  be  fined  and  imprisoned.  Not- 
withstanding his  opposition  to  free  education,  the  government 
takes  his  property  in  the  form  of  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  public 
schools.  Prosperous  in  business  and  happy  at  home,  he  is  com- 
pelled by  society  to  leave  wealth,  family,  and  happiness  to  fight 
for  a  cause  to  which,  perhaps,  he  is  indifferent  or  even  hostile. — 
Hill,  "Community  Life  and  Civic  Problems" 

96.  Comparison  and  contrast.  Occasionally  the  idea  of  a 
paragraph  may  be  made  clearer  by  means  of  comparison  and 
contrast  in  developing  the  topic  sentence.  Not  always  are  the 
two  used  in  the  same  paragraph,  but  often  they  are  combined. 
In  the  following  paragraph,  comparison  has  been  used  alone: 

[Topic  sentence]  The  body  of  an  animal  may  well  be  com- 
pared with  some  machine  like  a  locomotive  engine.   Indeed,  the 


THE  PARAGRAPH  145 

animal  body  is  a  machine.  It  is  a  machine  composed  of  many 
parts,  each  part  doing  some  particular  kind  of  work  for  which  a 
particular  kind  of  structure  fits  it ;  and  all  the  parts  are  dependent 
on  each  other  and  work  together  for  the  accomplishment  of  the 
total  business  of  the  machine.  The  locomotive  must  be  provided 
with  fuel,  such  as  coal  or  wood  or  other  combustible  substance,  the 
consumption  of  which  furnishes  the  force  or  energy  of  the  machine. 
The  animal  body  must  be  provided  with  fuel,  which  is  called  food, 
which  furnishes  similarly  the  energy  of  the  animal.  Oxygen  must 
be  provided  for  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  in  the  locomotive  and  of 
the  food  in  the  body.  The  locomotive  is  composed  of  special  parts : 
the  fire  box  for  the  reception  and  combustion  of  fuel ;  the  steam 
pipes  for  the  carriage  of  steam ;  the  wheels  for  locomotion ;  the 
smokestack  for  throwing  off  waste.  The  animal  body  is  similarly 
composed  of  parts :  the  alimentary  canal  for  the  reception  and 
assimilation  of  food ;  the  excretory  organs  for  the  throwing  off  of 
waste  matter ;  the  arteries  and  veins  for  the  carriage  of  o.xygen  and 
food-holding  blood ;  the  legs  or  wings  for  locomotion. — Jordan 
and  Kellogg,  "Animal  Life"^ 

Note  in  the  following  paragraph  the  use  of  contrast  as  a 
means  of  developing  the  topic  sentence,  which  is  here  placed  last : 

In  the  old  days  the  home  was  the  center  of  merrymaking  and 
amusement.  Parties,  dances,  and  social  gatherings  were  usually 
held  at  the  residences  of  the  young  people.  The  influence  of  the 
family  circle  was  always  present.  In  the  city,  at  least,  this  is  un- 
common at  the  present  time.  Nowadays  when  the  members  of  the 
family  meet  at  the  end  of  the  day's  work,  if  they  are  not  so  tired 
that  they  go  to  bed  shortly  after  the  evening  meal,  they  generally 
seek  amusement  at  the  motion  pictures,  the  club,  the  bowling- 
alley,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  theater,  or  the  concert  hall.  Thus  the 
home  not  only  loses  a  valuable  opportunity  to  become  the  center 
of  happiness,  but  recreation  itself  may  become  a  danger.  [Topic 
sentence]  Here,  too,  there  is  need  for  the  school  and  the  church 
to  do  work  formerly  done  by  the  family. — Hill,  "Community  Life 
and  Civic  Problems  " 

lUsed  by  permission  of  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  publishers. 


146  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

97.  Statement  supported  with  reasons.  Frequently  a  topic 
sentence  may  be  developed  by  setting  forth  the  reasons  upon 
which  the  general  statement  is  based.  If  the  topic  sentence 
raises  a  question  in  the  reader's  mind,  or  leaves  room  for  differ- 
ence of  opinion,  it  demands  the  statement  of  the  supporting 
reasons  for  its  development.  The  following  paragraph  is  an 
illustration  of  the  use  of  this  method : 

[Topic  sentence]  Devote  some  of  your  leisure,  I  repeat,  to  cul- 
tivating a  love  of  reading  good  books.  Fortunate  indeed  are  those 
who  contrive  to  make  themselves  genuine  book-lovers.  For  book- 
lovers  have  some  noteworthy  advantages  over  other  people.  They 
need  never  know  lonely  hours  so  long  as  they  have  books  around 
them,  and  the  better  the  books  the  more  delightful  the  company. 
From  good  books,  moreover,  they  draw  much  besides  entertain- 
ment. They  gain  mental  food  such  as  few  companions  can  supply. 
Even  while  resting  from  their  labors  they  are,  through  the  books 
they  read,  equipping  themselves  to  perform  those  labors  more 
efficiently.  This  albeit  they  may  not  be  deliberately  reading  to 
improve  their  mind.  All  unconsciously  the  ideas  they  derive  from 
the  printed  page  are  stored  up,  to  be  worked  over  by  the  im- 
agination for  their  future  profit. — H.  Addington  Bruce,  "Self- 
Development"^ 

EXERCISES 

I 

Study  the  following  paragraphs,  pointing  out  the  topic  sentences 
and  explaining  the  means  by  which  they  have  been  developed : 

1.  "Bad  weather"  is  mainly  the  fear  of  spoiling  one's  clothes. 
Fancy  clothing  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  a  knowledge  of 
nature  :  in  this  regard,  the  farm  boy  has  an  immense  advantage.  It  is 
a  misfortune  not  to  have  gone  barefoot  in  one's  youth.  A  man  cannot 
be  a  naturalist  in  patent-leather  shoes.  The  perfecting  of  the  manu- 
facture of  elaborate  and  fragile  fabrics  correlates  well  with  our  growing 

HJsed  by  permission  of  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Company,  publishers. 


^'  K'.-jstunr  \:c«  Cuinp.^ny 


A  CITY  MARKET 


THE  PARAGFL\PH  147 

habit  of  living  indoors.  Our  clothing  is  made  chiefly  for  fair  weather ; 
when  it  becomes  worn  we  use  it  for  stormy  weather,  although  it  may  be 
in  no  respect  stormy-weather  clothing.  I  am  always  interested,  when 
abroad  with  persons,  in  noting  the  various  mental  attitudes  toward 
wind ;  and  it  is  apparent  that  most  of  the  displeasure  from  the  wind 
arises  from  fear  of  disarranging  the  coiffure  or  from  the  difficulty  of 
controlling  a  garment. — L.  H.  Bailey,  "The  Outlook  to  Nature"^ 

2.  Turn  where  you  will,  go  where  you  will,  today  steel  is  always 
present,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  realize  how  much  steel  has  contributed 
to  increasing  the  effectiveness  of  man's  work.  The  part  it  has  played, 
and  still  is  playing,  almost  defies  the  imagination.  Each  steam  shovel 
or  steam  hammer  does  the  work  of  a  small  army.  By  moving  levers  a 
man  whose  greatest  effort  will  not  budge  a  weight  of  more  than  a 
few  hundred  pounds  can  put  into  motion  and  control  absolutely 
mechanisms  that  handle  with  ease  tons  upon  tons  of  stone  or  metal. 
There  are  cranes  that  handle  masses  of  molten  iron  weighing  as  much 
as  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  There  are  hydraulic  presses  whose 
power  is  equivalent  to  seven  thousand  tons  or  more.  In  a  power  station 
of  what  was  the  Manhattan  Street  Railway  Company  there  is  a  steam 
turbine  of  eight  units,  which  produces  one  hiaidred  thousand  horse 
power.  Skyscrapers,  steamships,  bridges — they  all  bear  witness  to  the 
power  that  the  mastery  of  steel  has  given  to  man. — W.  Cameron 
Forbes,  "The  Romance  of  Business "- 

3.  On  the  faces  of  the  men  the  day's  toil  has  written  its  record  even 
as  on  the  women,  but  in  a  much  coarser  hand.  Fatigue  has  beaten  down 
the  soul  of  these  men  into  brutish  indifference,  but  in  the  women  it  has 
drawn  fine  the  flesh  only  to  make  it  more  eloquent  of  the  soul.  Instead 
of  listlessness,  there  is  wistfulness.  Instead  of  vacuity  you  read 
mystery.  Innate  grace  rises  above  the  vnjlgarity  of  the  dress.  Cheap, 
tawdry  blouse  and  imitation  willow-plume  walk  shoulder  to  shoulder 
with  the  shoddy  coat  of  the  male,  copying  Fifth  Avenue  as  fifty 
cents  may  attain  to  five  dollars.  But  the  men's  shoddy  is  merely 
a  horror,  whereas  woman  transfigures  and  subtilizes  the  cheap  material. 
The  spirit  of  grace  which  is  the  birthright  of  her  sex  cannot  be  killed — 
not  even  by  the  presence  of  her  best  young  man  in  Sunday  clothes. 
She  is  finer  by  the  heritage  of  her  sex,  and  America  has  accentuated 

^Used  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  publishers. 
2  Used  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


148  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

her  title.  This  America  which  drains  her  youthful  vigor  with  over- 
work, which  takes  from  her  cheeks  the  color  she  has  brought  from 
her  Slavic  or  Italian  peasant  home,  makes  restitution  by  remold- 
ing her  in  more  delicate,  more  alluring  lines,  gives  her  the  high  privi- 
lege of  charm  —  and  neurosis. — Simeon  Strunsky,  "The  Street"^ 

4.  Now,  to  be  properly  enjoyed,  a  walking  tour  should  be  gone  upon 
alone.  If  you  go  in  a  company,  or  even  in  pairs,  it  is  no  longer  a  walking 
tour  in  anything  but  name  ;  it  is  something  else,  and  more  in  the  nature 
of  a  picnic.  A  walking  tour  should  be  gone  upon  alone,  because  freedom 
is  of  the  essence  ;  because  you  should  be  able  to  stop  and  go  on,  and 
follow  this  way  or  that,  as  the  freak  takes  you  ;  and  because  you  must 
have  your  own  pace,  and  neither  trot  alongside  a  champion  walker, 
nor  mince  in  time  with  a  girl.  And  then  you  must  be  open  to  all  im- 
pressions and  let  your  thoughts  take  color  from  what  you  see.  You 
should  be  as  a  pipe  for  any  wind  to  play  upon.  "I  cannot  see  the  wit," 
says  Hazlitt,  "of  walking  and  talking  at  the  same  time.  When  I  am  in 
the  country  I  wish  to  vegetate  like  the  country," — which  is  the  gist  of 
all  that  can  be  said  upon  the  matter.  There  should  be  no  cackle  of 
voices  at  your  elbow,  to  jar  on  the  meditative  silence  of  the  morning. 
And  so  long  as  a  man  is  reasoning  he  cannot  surrender  himself  to  that 
fine  intoxication  that  comes  of  much  motion  in  the  open  air,  that 
begins  in  a  sort  of  dazzle  and  sluggishness  of  the  brain,  and  ends  in  a 
peace  that  passes  comprehension.  —  Stevenson,  "Walking  Tours "^ 

5.  Regardless  of  personal  danger,  policemen  often  risk  their  lives  for 
the  safety  of  others.  In  New  York  City  recently  a  patrolman  at  great 
hazard  stopped  three  runaway  horses  attached  to  a  fire  engine  ;  another 
bluecoat  caught  a  mad  dog  which  had  already  bitten  five  persons ;  two 
other  officers  almost  perished  in  rescuing  a  number  of  people  from  a 
burning  five-story  tenement.  Instances  of  similar  heroism  have  occurred 
in  every  city  in  the  United  States. — Hill,  "Community  Life  and  Civic 
Problems  " 

6.  The  air  is  an  invisible  blotter  that  is  constantly  absorbing  mois- 
ture. Its  capacity  to  evaporate  and  absorb  increases  with  rapidity  of 
movement.  Roughly,  six  times  as  much  water  is  evaporated  from  a 
place  that  is  swept  by  a  twenty-five-mile  wind  as  from  a  place  in  the 
dead  calm  of  the  forest.  The  quantity  of  water  evaporated  within  a 
forest  or  in  its  shelter  is  many  times  less  than  is  evaporated  from  the 

lUsed  by  permission  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  Press,  publishers. 
-Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


THE  PAIL\GRAPH  149 

soil  in  an  exposed  situation.  This  shelter  and  the  consequent  decreased 
evaporation  may  save  a  crop  in  a  dry  season.  During  seasons  of  scanty 
rainfall  the  crops  often  fail,  probably  not  because  sufficient  water  has 
not  fallen,  but  because  the  thirsty  winds  have  drawn  from  the  soil  so 
much  moisture  that  the  water  tal)lo  in  the  soil  is  lowered  below  the 
reach  of  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants.  —  Enos  A.  Mills,  "The  Spell 
of  the  Rockies"^ 

7.  What  are  the  great  faults  of  conversation?  Want  of  ideas,  want 
of  words,  want  of  manners,  are  the  principal  ones,  I  suppose  you  think. 
I  don't  doubt  it,  but  I  will  tell  you  what  I  have  found  spoil  more  good 
talks  than  anything  else:  long  arguments  on  special  points  between 
people  who  differ  on  the  fundamental  principles  on  which  these  points 
depend.  No  men  can  have  satisfactory  relations  with  each  other  until 
they  have  agreed  on  certain  ultimata  of  belief  not  to  be  disturbed  in 
ordinary  conversation,  and  unless  they  have  sense  enough  to  trace  the 
secondary  questions  depending  upon  these  ultimate  beliefs  to  their 
source.  In  short,  just  as  a  written  constitution  is  essential  to  the  best 
social  order,  so  a  code  of  finalities  is  a  necessary  condition  of  profitable 
talk  between  two  persons.  Talking  is  like  playing  on  a  harp:  there  is 
as  much  in  laying  the  hand  on  the  strings  to  stop  their  vibrations  as 
in  twanging  them  to  bring  out  their  music. — Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
"The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table" 

8.  Night  is  a  dead  and  monotonous  period  under  a  roof ;  but  in  the 
open  world  it  passes  lightly,  with  its  stars  and  dews  and  perfumes, 
and  the  hours  are  marked  by  changes  in  the  face  of  Nature.  What  seems 
a  kind  of  temporal  death  to  people  choked  between  walls  and  curtains 
is  only  a  light  and  living  slumber  to  the  man  who  sleeps  afield.  All 
night  long  he  can  hear  Nature  breathing  deeply  and  freely;  even  as 
she  takes  her  rest  she  turns  and  smiles ;  and  there  is  one  stirring  hour, 
unknown  to  those  who  dwell  in  houses,  when  a  wakeful  influence  goes 
abroad  over  the  sleeping  hemisphere,  and  all  the  outdoor  world  are  on 
their  feet.  It  is  then  that  the  cock  first  crows,  not  this  time  to  announce 
the  dawn,  but  like  a  cheerful  watchman  speeding  the  course  of  night. 
Cattle  awake  on  the  meadows;  sheep  break  their  fast  on  dewy  hill- 
sides, and  change  to  a  new  lair  among  the  ferns ;  and  houseless  men, 
who  have  lain  down  with  the  fowls,  open  their  dim  eyes  and  behold 
the  beauty  of  the  night.  —  Stevenson,  "Travels  with  a  Donkey  "^ 

lUsed  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 
2  Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


ISO  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Bring  to  class  paragraphs  in  which  the  topic  sentence  is  devel- 
oped by  the  following  means,  employed  alone  or  in  combination: 

1.  Details. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Repetition. 

4.  Specific  examples. 

5.  Comparison  and  contrast. 

Ill 

Develop  by  the  use  of  details  or  specific  examples  each  of  the 
following  topic  sentences: 

1.  The  house  of  my  friend  is  ideally  located. 

2.  The  experiment  was  a  very  difficult  one  to  perform. 

3.  Few  students  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities  they  have  for 
self-cultivation  in  English. 

4.  Success  is  dangerous  for  many  people. 

98.  Connecting  words  and  phrases.  Though  we  may  secure 
adequate  coherence  in  the  paragraph  by  arranging  our  ideas  in 
an  orderly  and  logical  manner,  we  may  often  gain  added  clear- 
ness by  the  use  of  reference  words  and  connecting  words  and 
phrases  to  show  the  relation  between  our  sentences  and  to  indi- 
cate the  direction  in  which  our  thought  is  moving.  There  are 
three  ways  of  indicating  this  relationship:  (i)  by  demonstra- 
tive words  and  phrases  such  as  the  personal  and  demonstra- 
tive pronouns  and  such  demonstrative  phrases  as  on  that  occa- 
sion, in  this  case,  under  these  circumstances,  in  this  manner, 
jar  this  reason ;  ( 2 )  by  repetition  of  the  noun  used  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentence  or  by  the  use  of  one  of  its  synonyms;  and 
(3)  by  conjunctional  and  adverbial  words  and  phrases,  such  as 
tnorever,  hence,  however,  thereupon,  finally,  likewise,  then, 
therefore,  meanwhile,  fortunately,  in  fact,  near  by,  at  length,  of 


THE  PARAGRAPH  151 

course,  on  the  contrary,  that  is,  after  a  short  time,  for  instance. 
Wherever  such  words  and  phrases  are  needed  to  make  the 
meaning  of  the  paragraph  more  clear,  they  should  be  used ;  but 
where  the  thought  is  eminently  simple,  we  should,  of  course, 
avoid  using  many  words  of  reference. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  notice  the  use  of  the  words  and 
phrases  in  italics  as  a  means  of  securing  coherence: 

1.  Initiative  is  the  ability  to  reason  out  a  course  of  action  and 
to  take  that  course  decisively  and  energetically.  //  is  one  of  the 
basic  elements  in  business  success.  Without  it  a  business  man  need 
never  hope  to  travel  far.  However  great  his  mental  power,  unless 
he  possesses  the  quality  oj  independent  and  energetic  action  he 
will  always  be  among  the  laggards  in  the  business  world. — H.  Ad- 
DiNGTON  Bruce,  "Self-Development"' 

2.  Mannerism  is  pardonable,  and  is  sometimes  even  agreeable, 
when  the  manner,  though  vicious,  is  natural.  Few  readers,  jor 
example,  would  be  willing  to  part  with  the  mannerism  of  Milton 
or  of  Burke.  But  a  mannerism  which  does  not  sit  easy  on  the  man- 
nerist, which  has  been  adopted  on  principle,  and  which  can  be 
sustained  only  by  constant  effort,  is  always  offensive.  And  such 
is  the  mannerism  of  Johnson. — Macaulay,  "Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson" 

EXERCISES 


Select  from  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  three  paragraphs  in 
which  coherence  is  obvious.  Be  prepared  to  show  what  methods 
of  development  are  followed  and  what  reference  words  and  con- 
necting words  and  phrases  are  used. 

II 

Write  a  paragraph  on  a  topic  derived  from  one  of  the  following 
subjects.  Give  special  attention  to  the  methods  of  securing  coher- 
ence. Underline  reference  words  and  connecting  words  and  phrases. 

lUsed  by  permission  of  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Company,  publishers. 


152  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  A  Peculiar  Pet. 

2.  Roadside  Botany. 

3.  Christmas   Shopping. 

4.  Our  Milkman. 

5.  An  Amusing  Experience. 

6.  A  Destructive  Insect. 

7.  Making  Concrete  Blocks. 

8.  Our  School's  Greatest  Need. 

9.  A  Winter  Sport. 

10.  The  Red-Cross  Sale  of  Christmas  Seals. 

11.  An  Interesting  Subway  Observation. 

12.  My  Favorite  Picture. 

13.  An  Unusual  Animal  Trait. 

14.  The  Pleasure  of  Word  Study. 

99.  Emphasis  in  the  paragraph.  Emphasis  requires  that 
the  different  ideas  in  a  paragraph  be  given  space  in  proportion 
to  their  importance  and  that  the  most  important  ideas  be  placed 
at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

100.  Chief  means  of  securing  emphasis  in  the  paragraph. 
We  may  secure  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  Weigh  carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas  and  give  most 
space  to  the  most  important.  Details  should  be  kept  subordi- 
nate, and  should  be  amplified  only  in  proportion  to  their  in- 
dividual importance  in  relation  to  the  main  idea.  Too  much 
amplification  and  too  great  illustration  of  a  simple  statement 
will  clearly  result  in  violations  of  proportion. 

2.  Develop  the  important  idea  expressed  in  the  topic  sen- 
tence so  as  to  make  the  beginning  and  the  ending  of  the  para- 
graph emphatic. 

3.  Arrange  ideas  in  the  order  of  climax  when  the  length  and 
the  nature  of  the  paragraph  warrant  it.  That  is,  begin  with  the 
least  important  idea  and  arrange  the  other  items  in  the  order  of 
their  increasing  importance. 

The  following  paragraphs  fulfill  the  requirements  of  emphasis : 


THE  I'ARAGRAPH  153 

1.  He  [Goldsmith]  soon,  however,  grew  tired  and  impatient  of 
the  duties  and  restraints  of  his  profession ;  his  practice  was  chiefly 
among  his  friends,  and  the  fees  were  not  sufficient  for  his  main- 
tenance ;  he  was  disgusted  with  attendance  on  sick-chambers  and 
capricious  patients,  and  looked  back  with  longing  to  his  tavern 
haunts  and  broad,  convivial  meetings,  from  which  the  dignity  and 
duties  of  his  medical  calling  restrained  him.  At  length,  on  pre- 
scribing for  a  lady  of  his  acquaintance,  who,  to  use  a  hackneyed 
phrase,  "rejoiced"  in  the  aristocratical  name  of  Sidebotham.  a 
warm  dispute  arose  between  him  and  the  apothecary  as  to  the 
quantity  of  medicine  to  be  administered.  The  Doctor  stood  up  for 
the  rights  and  dignities  of  his  profession,  and  resented  the  inter- 
ference of  the  compounder  of  drugs.  His  rights  and  dignities,  how- 
ever, were  disregarded ;  his  wig  and  cane  and  scarlet  roquelaure 
were  of  no  avail ;  Mrs.  Sidebotham  sided  with  the  hero  of  the 
pestle  and  mortar;  and  Goldsmith  Hung  out  of  the  house  in  a  pas- 
sion. "1  am  determined  henceforth,"  said  he  to  Topham  Beau- 
clerc,  "to  leave  off  prescribing  for  friends."  "Do  so,  my  dear 
Doctor,''  was  the  reply;  "whenever  you  undertake  to  kill,  let  it  be 
only  your  enemies." — Irving,  "Life  of  Goldsmith" 

2.  Scarcely  any  passages  in  the  poems  of  Milton  are  more  gen- 
erally known,  or  more  frequently  repeated,  than  those  which  are 
little  more  than  muster  rolls  of  names.  They  are  not  always  more 
appropriate  or  more  melodious  than  other  names.  But  they  are 
charmed  names.  Every  one  of  them  is  the  first  link  in  a  long  chain 
of  associated  ideas.  Like  the  dwelling-place  of  our  infancy  re- 
visited in  manhood,  like  the  song  of  our  country  heard  in  a  strange 
land,  they  produce  upon  us  an  effect  wholly  independent  of  their 
intrinsic  value.  One  transports  us  back  to  a  remote  period  of  his- 
tory. Another  places  us  among  the  novel  scenes  and  manners  of  a 
distant  region.  A  third  evokes  all  the  dear  classical  recollections  of 
childhood,  the  schoolroom,  the  dog-eared  Virgil,  the  holiday,  and 
the  prize.  A  fourth  brings  before  us  the  splendid  phantoms  of 
chivalrous  romance,  the  trophied  lists,  the  embroidered  housings, 
the  quaint  devices,  the  haunted  forests,  the  enchanted  gardens,  the 
achievement  of  enamored  knights,  and  the  smiles  of  rescued 
princesses. — Mac.aulay,  "Essay  on  Milton" 


154  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I 

Select  from  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  three  paragraphs 
that  embody  the  principle  of  emphasis.  Be  prepared  to  analyze 
them  to  prove  the  wisdom  of  your  selection. 

II 

Study  the  following  paragraph  with  reference  to  proportion, 
character  of  beginning  and  ending,  and  use  of  climax : 

In  so  far  as  Americanism  is  merely  patriotism,  it  is  a  very  good 
thing.  The  man  who  does  not  think  his  own  country  the  finest  in  the 
world  is  either  a  pretty  poor  sort  of  man  or  else  he  has  a  pretty  poor 
sort  of  country.  If  any  people  have  not  patriotism  enough  to  make 
them  willing  to  die  that  the  nation  may  live,  then  that  people  will 
soon  be  pushed  aside  in  the  struggle  of  life,  and  that  nation  will  be 
trampled  upon  and  crushed ;  probably  it  will  be  conquered  and  ab- 
sorbed by  some  race  of  a  stronger  fiber  and  of  a  sterner  stock.  Per- 
haps it  is  difficult  to  declare  precisely  which  is  the  more  pernicious 
citizen  of  a  republic  when  there  is  danger  of  war  with  another  nation  : 
the  man  who  wants  to  fight,  right  or  wrong,  the  hot-headed  fellow  who 
would  plunge  the  country  into  a  deadly  struggle  without  first  exhaust- 
ing every  possible  chance  to  obtain  an  honorable  peace,  or  the  cold- 
blooded person  who  would  willingly  give  up  anything  and  everything, 
including  honor  itself,  sooner  than  risk  the  loss  of  money  which  every 
war  surely  entails.  "My  country,  right  or  wrong,"  is  a  good  motto 
only  when  we  add  to  it,  "and  if  she  is  in  the  wrong,  I'll  help  to  put  her 
in  the  right."  To  shrink  absolutely  from  a  fight  where  honor  is  really 
at  stake,  this  is  the  act  of  a  coward.  To  rush  violently  into  a  quarrel 
when  war  can  be  avoided  without  the  sacrifice  of  things  dearer  than 
life,  this  is  the  act  of  a  fool.  —  Brander  Matthews,  "Parts  of  Speech"^ 

III 

Write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  the  following  topic  sentences,  using 
one  or  more  of  the  means  for  securing  emphasis : 

^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  155 

1.  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  our  team  won  the  last  game. 
2    A  successful  dairy  requires  skillful  management. 

3.  County  demonstration  agents  should  be  better  paid. 

4.  Motion  pictures  arc  proving  useful  in  the  teaching  of  history  and 
literature. 

5.  Our  kitchen  is  equipped  with  all  modern  labor-saving  con- 
veniences. 

6.  Stories  of  inventions   fascinate  me. 

101.  Transitional  paragraphs.  In  longer  and  more  formal 
compositions  a  short  transitional  paragraph  may  sometimes  be 
used  to  make  clear  the  logical  connection  between  the  main 
topics  by  linking  the  preceding  paragraph  with  the  one  that 
follows.  The  example  given  below  illustrates  this  use. 

[Paragraph  on  the  liberal  attitude  of  England  previously  toward 
her  colonies.] 

[Transitional  paragraph]  Adhering,  Sir,  as  I  do,  to  this  policy, 
as  ii'ell  as  for  the  reasons  I  have  just  given,  I  think  this  new  project 
of  hcdging-in  population  to  be  neither  prudent  nor  practicable. 

[Paragraph  on  the  topic  sentence  ''To  impoverish  the  colonies 
in  general,  and  in  particular  to  arrest  the  noble  course  of  their 
marine  enterprises,  would  be  a  more  easy  task."] — Burke, 
"Speech  on  Conciliation" 

Occasionally  a  transitional  paragraph  is  employed  to  connect 
an  entire  group  of  paragraphs  with  a  group  that  follows.  In 
addition,  it  sometimes  includes  a  brief  summary.^ 

GENERAL   EXERCISES 
I 

Write  paragraphs  developing  five  of  the  following  topics.  Un- 
derscore your  topic  sentence  and  all  transitional  words  and  phrases. 
Immediately  after  each  paragraph  state  what  methods  of  securing 
coherence  and  emphasis  you  have  used. 

^E.xamine  paragraph  13  in  "Self-Cultivation  in  English," 


156  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  The  dog  is  man's  best  friend  among  the  lower  animals. 

2.  What  stamps  a  man  as  great  is  not  freedom  from  faults  but 
abundance  of  powers. 

3.  The  house  was  in  the  last  stages  of  dilapidation. 

4.  The  unexpected  frequently  happens. 

5.  Our  guest  was  a  queer  old  lady. 

6.  A  boy  has  much  better  chances  for  success  in  the  city  than  in 
the  country. 

7.  Studying  a  foreign  language  greatly  aids  in  the  mastery  of  English. 

8.  Last  summer  I  had  a  very  narrow  escape. 

9.  The  best  way  to  save  time  is  to  use  it  profitably. 
10.  My  room  was  recently  the  scene  of  a  tragedy. 

II 

Divide  the  following  passage  of  conversation  correctly  into  para- 
graphs. Place  each  speech,  together  with  the  author's  comment 
about  the  speaker,  in  a  separate  paragraph.  The  first  sentence 
belongs  in  a  paragraph  by  itself. 

The  Sire  de  Maletroit  raised  his  right  hand  and  wagged  it  at  Denis 
with  the  fore  and  little  fingers  extended.  "  My  dear  nephew,"  he  said, 
"sit  down."  "Nephew!"  retorted  Denis,  "'you  lie  in  your  throat"; 
and  he  snapped  his  fingers  in  his  face.  "  Sit  down,  you  rogue  !  "  cried  the 
old  gentleman,  in  a  sudden,  harsh  voice,  like  the  barking  of  a  dog. 
"Do  you  fancy,"  he  went  on,  "that  when  I  had  made  my  little  con- 
trivance for  the  door  I  had  stopped  short  with  that?  If  you  prefer 
to  be  bound  hand  and  foot  till  your  bones  ache,  rise  and  try  to  go  away. 
If  you  choose  to  remain  a  free  young  buck,  agreeably  conversing  with 
an  old  gentleman — why,  sit  where  you  are  in  peace,  and  God  be  with 
you."  "Do  you  mean  I  am  a  prisoner  ?"  demanded  Denis.  "I  state  the 
facts,"  replied  the  other.  "I  would  rather  leave  the  conclusion  to  your- 
self."— Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  "The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door"^ 

III 

Write  a  page  or  more  of  conversation.  You  may  reproduce  a 
conversation  that  you  have  recently  overheard  or  in  which  you 
have  taken  part,  or  you  may  write  an  imaginary  conversation  on 

HJsed  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  157 

one  of  the  topics  given  below,  lie  sure  that  you  divide  your  c(jn- 
versation  correctly  into  paragraphs.  In  each  speech  indicate  clearly 
which  person  is  speaking.  Avoid  overworking  the  words  said, 
asked,  and  replied. 

1.  Two  boys  discussing  the  approaching  athletic  meet. 

2.  Two  girls  discussing  additions  to  their  wardrobes. 

3.  A  boy  and  a  girl  exchanging  ('hristmas  or  vacation  experiences. 

4.  Your  mother  and  father  talking  about  you. 

5.  A  party-line  telephone  conversation  that  you  overheard. 

6.  Your  small  brother  or  sister  entertaining  a  visitor  during  yout 
mother's  absence  from  the  room. 

7.  .\  modern  high-school  girl  talking  with  her  prim  old-maid  aunt 
about  "'flappers." 

IV 

Read  again  Palmer's  "Self-Cultivation  in  English"  and  point 
out  the  topic  sentence  of  each  paragraph. 


Analyze  five  of  the  paragraphs  that  your  teacher  will  assign  you 
in  "Self-Cultivation  in  English."  Point  out  the  topic  sentence,  e.x- 
plain  the  method  of  coherent  development,  and  indicate  all  transi- 
tional devices  used  in  each  paragraph. 

VI 

Following  the  directions  given  in  Exercise  V,  analyze  five  para- 
graphs that  your  teacher  will  assign  you  in  one  of  your  texts  in 
literature  or  history. 

102.  Summary.  A  paragraph  is  a  group  of  related  sentences 
that  develop  a  single  topic.  It  is  a  unit  of  writing,  whether  it  is 
a  separate  paragraph  that  is  a  composition  in  miniature  or  one 
of  the  related  paragraphs  in  a  whole  composition. 

The  length  of  the  paragraph  depends  on  two  things :  the 
importance  and  the  complexity  of  the  topic  to  be  discussed  and 
the  length  of  the  whole  composition. 


158  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  paragraph  should  possess  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

Unity  has  to  do  with  the  choice  of  material  and  requires  that 
the  thought  be  focused  on  the  central  idea  or  topic.  The  means 
of  securing  unity  in  the  paragraph  are  the  adequate  develop- 
ment of  a  single  topic  and  the  avoidance  of  digressions. 

The  topic  sentence  is  often  placed  first  in  the  paragraph, 
especially  when  a  principle  is  to  be  illustrated,  a  general  idea 
is  to  be  made  clear  by  argument,  or  a  formal  proposition  is  to 
be  defended ;  it  is  sometimes  placed  last  to  secure  climax,  or  to 
emphasize  the  central  idea  after  the  mind  has  been  prepared 
for  it  by  the  use  of  explanatory  details ;  it  is  sometimes  placed 
first  and  then  repeated  at  the  end  for  emphasis  or  to  give  finish 
to  a  carefully  elaborated  thought ;  or  it  may  be  implied  only, 
but  in  so  clear  a  manner  that  the  reader  will  not  have  difficulty 
in  discovering  what  the  central  thought  is. 

Coherence  in  the  paragraph  has  to  do  with  the  arrangement 
of  the  material  with  a  view  to  clearness.  The  chief  means  of 
securing  clearness  are  to  seek  definitely  a  natural  and  logical 
order  of  developing  the  central  idea  expressed  in  the  topic 
sentence  and  to  use  connective  words  and  phrases. 

Emphasis  in  the  paragraph  has  to  do  with  the  arrangement 
of  the  material  with  a  view  to  force.  The  chief  means  of  obtain- 
ing emphasis  are  to  weigh  carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas 
and  give  them  space  according  to  their  importance ;  to  place  the 
most  important  idea  either  first  or  last  in  the  paragraph ;  and 
to  arrange  the  ideas  in  a  climax  of  thought,  if  this  will  prove 
more  effective  than  either  of  the  other  means. 

A  short  transitional  paragraph  is  often  valuable  in  showing 
the  logical  connection  between  groups  of  paragraphs. 


CHArTER  VIII 

THE  SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED 

103.  Nature  and  purpose  of  the  sentence.  .1  sentence  is  the 
expression  of  a  complete  thought  in  n'ords.  It  is  the  unit  of 
study  in  grammar,  inasmuch  as  words  have  constructions  only 
because  of  their  relation  one  to  another  in  the  sentence.  It  is 
also  the  unit  of  expression  in  all  kinds  of  writing.  If  we  cannot 
express  ourselves  clearly  and  well  in  single  sentences,  we  cannot 
express  ourselves  clearly  and  well  in  paragraphs  or  whole  com- 
positions. For  this  reason  the  sentence  deserves  detailed  study. 

Since  punctuation  is  closely  related  to  sentence  composition, 
we  can  best  study  the  rules  of  punctuation  at  the  same  time 
that  we  study  sentences.  In  this  chapter,  therefore,  numerous 
exercises  in  punctuation  have  been  included.  By  means  of  these, 
and  by  frequent  reference  to  Chapter  X,  we  should  learn  to 
punctuate  our  own  sentences  correctly. 

In  conjunction  with  our  study  of  the  present  chapter  we  shall 
find  in  Chapters  XI  and  XXI  much  additional  information  that 
will  prove  helpful. 

104.  Kinds  of  sentences  according  to  form.  According  to 
their  form,  sentences  are  simple,  compound,  complex,  and 
compound-complex. 

105.  The  simple  sentence.  A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence 
that  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate. 

1.  John  drove  the  car. 

2.  This  book  was  printed  in  England. 

A  simple  sentence  may  contain,  instead  of  a  simple  subject 
and  a  simple  predicate,  (i)  a  compound  subject,  (2)  a  com- 

159 


i6o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

pound  predicate,  or  (3)  a  compound  subject  and  a  compound 
predicate,  as  the  following  illustrations  show: 

1.  Mrs.  Houghton  and  her  sister  live  in  New  York.  (Compound 
subject) 

2.  Helen  missed  the  step  and  sprained  her  ankle.  (Compound  predi- 
cate) 

3.  Friends  and  relatives  called  and  expressed  their  deep  sympathy. 
(Compound  subject  and  compound  predicate) 

Each  of  these  three  sentences  is  a  simple  sentence,  for  it  con- 
sists of  one,  and  only  one,  independent  proposition. 

106.  Phrases.  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  closely  related  words 
that  does  not  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  A  simple  sen- 
tence may  include  any  number  of  phrases.  In  the  following 
sentences  each  italicized  group  of  words  is  a  phrase : 

1.  The  children  in  the  park  play  mith  the  squirrels. 

2.  On  my  table  I  found  a  letter  frotn  my  mother. 

3.  My  friend,  seeing  his  sister,  ran  to  meet  her. 

4.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  read  good  books. 

5.  Two  days  having  elapsed,  we  gave  up  hope  oj  finding  the  children. 

6.  The  entire  journey  was,  in  fact,  a  dangerous  one. 

According  to  their  form,  phrases  are  classified  as  preposi- 
tional phrases,  participial  phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  and  gerund 
(or  verbal-noun)  phrases.  Note  an  example  of  each  in  the  fol- 
lowing italicized  phrases : 

1.  A  friend  jrom  the  city  returned  with  us.    (Prepositional  phrases) 

2.  A  man  reading  a  newspaper  was  the  only  other  passenger.  (A 
participial  phrase) 

3.  To  revisit  my  old  home  would  give  me  great  pleasure.  (An  in- 
finitive phrase) 

4.  I  remember  seeing  him  leave  the  room.    (A  gerund  phrase) 

Phrases  may  perform  any  one  of  five  different  functions  in 
the  sentence.  The  work  that  a  phrase  does  in  the  sentence  is 
the  only  means  of  determining  its  function.  According  to  their 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      i6i 

use,  therefore,  we  may  classify  phrases  as  noun  phrases,  adjec- 
tive phrases,  adverbial  phrases,  verb  phrases,  and  independent 
phrases. 

Noun  Phrases 

A  phrase  that  performs  the  function  of  a  noun  is  called  a 
noun  phrase. 

1.  To  cross  the  bridge  was  dangerous. 

2.  We  decided  to  take  the  risk. 

3.  His  decision  to  climb  the  mountain  could  not  be  changed. 

4.  I  always  dread  ivriting  letters. 

5.  Criticizing  the  actions  of  others  is  his  delight. 

6.  His  duty  is  to  advise  clients. 

Adjective  Phil^ses 

A  phrase  that  is  used  to  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  called 
an  adjective  phrase. 

1.  Here  is  a  picture  of  my  mother. 

2.  A  stranger  wearing  a  soft,  black  felt  hat  entered  the  room. 

3.  The  letter,  being  now  almost  illegible,  was  copied. 

4.  The  furniture  was  of  an  unusual  design. 

5.  There  was  her  name,  scrawled  carelessly  below. 

Adverbi.al  Phrases 

A  phrase  that  is  used  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb  is  called  an  adverbial  phrase. 

1.  He  made  the  trip  in  his  private  car. 

2.  The  story  is  too  long  to  be  read  at  one  sitting. 

3.  She  has  gone  to  visit  her  mother. 

4.  He  conducted  himself  like  a  gentleman. 

5.  The  plumber  was  slow  enough  to  try  one's  patience. 

6.  The  guests  having  departed,  the  old  house  again  became  quiet. 

7.  The  telegram  coming  unexpectedly,  we  feared  that  an  accident 
had  befallen  them. 

8.  Our  finances  permitting,  we  shall  go  abroad  ne.xt  year. 


1 62  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Note.  The  italicized  phrases  in  the  sixth,  the  seventh,  and  the  eighth 
sentence  are  called  absolute  phrases.  In  each  phrase  a  noun  is  used  abso- 
lutely with  the  participle  that  follows.  Each  phrase  serves  as  an  ad- 
verbial modifier  of  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  stands. 


Verb  Phrases 
A  phrase  that  is  used  as  verb  is  called  a  verb  phrase. 

1.  The  fortune-teller  may  have  guessed  correctly. 

2.  The  trained  nurse  has  been  dismissed. 

3.  We  shall  walk  home. 

4.  They  could  see  his  shadow  distinctly. 

5.  The  story  should  never  have  been  told. 

Note.   For  a  more  complete  explanation  of  verb  phrases  see  pages 

474-475- 

Independent  Phr.ases 

A  prepositional,  participial,  or  infinitive  phrase  that  is  loosely 
introduced  into  the  sentence  and  that  has  no  grammatical 
relation  to  any  part  of  the  sentence  is  called  an  independent 
phrase.  An  independent  phrase  is  most  frequently  either  a 
modifier  of  an  entire  sentence  or  merely  a  transitional  device. 

1.  That  woman,  by  the  way,  is  making  a  name  for  herself  as  a 
scientist. 

2.  You  will,  in  the  first  place,  be  surprised  to  hear  their  decision. 

3.  To  make  a  lofig  story  short,  they  were  married  secretly  over  a 
month  ago. 

4.  Speaking  of  bores,  I  have  never  met  his  equal. 

5.  We  shall  enjoy  the  trip,  at  any  rate. 

Though  a  simple  sentence  may  include  any  number  of 
phrases,  it  can  have  only  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  as 
explained  above.  It  must  be  limited  to  the  expression  of  one 
proposition. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      163 

EXERCISES 

I 

State  the  use  of  each  phrase  in  the  first  two  groups  of  illustrative 
sentences  in  section  106. 

II 

State  the  form  of  each  phrase  in  the  illustrative  sentences  under 
noun  phrases,  adjective  phrases,  adverbial  phrases,  and  independ- 
ent phrases  in  section  106. 

Ill 

In  the  follov/ing  sentences  state  (i)  the  form  and  (2)  the  use  of 
each  phrase.  Give  the  reason  for  your  classification  in  every  instance. 

1.  Toward  evening  we  came  to  a  quaint  little  village  paved  with 
broken  shells. 

2.  A  boy,  splashed  with  acid  and  badly  frightened  by  the  e.xplosion, 
rushed  out  of  the  laboratory. 

3.  Calling  to  his  comrades,  he  led  the  way  into  the  cave. 

4.  At  the  blowing  of  the  whistle  every  man  returned  to  his  work. 

5.  Our  plan  to  reach  Los  Angeles  within  three  days  had  failed. 

6.  Growing  tulips  for  his  friends  is  his  avocation. 

7.  He  always  has  time  to  be  courteous  to  everyone. 

8.  With  a  steady  income  at  last  assured,  he  now  had  leisure  for  writing. 

9.  In  the  summer  I  enjoy  sleeping  out  of  doors. 

10.  Angela,  strange  to  say,  likes  to  study  geometry. 

11.  I  regret  being  unable  to  accompany  you  on  your  trip. 

12.  First  of  all,  a  dog  wearing  a  silver  collar  attracted  the  attention 
of  my  friend. 

13.  In  a  small  canoe  we  paddled  up  the  river  by  moonlight. 

14.  Having  several  long  assignments  to  prepare,  I  remained  at  home 
to  complete  my  work. 

15.  For  two  hours  we  skated,  the  blood  tingling  in  our  \eins. 

IV 

From  your  reading,  copy  fifteen  simple  sentences  and  bring  them 
to  class.  Underscore  each  phrase  and  be  prepared  to  classify  it 
according  to  form  and  according  to  use. 


1 64  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


V 

In  Chapter  X  study  carefully  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma 
in  separating,  or  setting  off,  words  and  phrases  in  the  sentence. 
Explain  the  use  of  all  commas  found  in  the  sentences  studied  in 
the  four  preceding  exercises. 

VI 

From  each  of  the  following  groups  of  simple  sentences  form  one 
simple  sentence.  Determine  which  sentence  of  the  group  contains 
the  main  thought  to  he  expressed.  Convert  the  other  sentences  of 
the  group  into  phrases.  In  your  completed  sentences  underscore 
each  phrase  and  be  prepared  to  classify  it  according  to  form  and 
according  to  use.  Apply  the  rules  of  punctuation  studied  in  Chap- 
ter X  wherever  commas  are  needed  in  your  sentences. 

'They  were  panic-stricken  by  the  appearance  of  a  troop  of 

English  soldiers. 
These  were  rapidly  advancing. 
They  fled  in  breathless  terror. 

r  His  coat  was  of  dark-green  cloth. 

2.  <  It  was  trimmed  with  silver  buttons. 
[  He  wore  this  coat  on  state  occasions. 

[The  wharf  was  at  the  end  of  the  street. 

3.  <  It  was  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  warehouse, 
[it  was  two  doors  away  from  the  shipping  company's  office. 

{On  this  occasion  a  banquet  was  given  Judge  Wentworth. 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  commandant. 
Judge  Wentworth  had  recently  retired  from  practice. 

{They  were  returning  home. 
They  had  been  away  twelve  years. 
They  looked  in  vain  for  the  familiar  landmarks. 


6.  i 


'  Opposite  her  stood  a  young  man. 
He  had  been  her  brother's  college  chum. 
She  recognized  him  from  his  picture. 
She  introduced  herself. 


SENTENXE  GR.\MMATICALLY  CONSIDERED     165 

ILast  night  we  saw  a  good  play. 
It  was  written  by  Franz  Molnar. 
The  title  of  the  play  is  "Liliom." 

(Yesterday  I  received  a  letter. 
In  it  was  a  check. 
The  check  was  from  my  uncle. 

(In  the  heart  of  London  lies  a  small  neighborhood. 
It  consists  of  a  cluster  of  narrow  streets  and  courts. 
Tourists  usually  avoid  this  neighborhood. 

("His  father  was  dead. 
10.  <  For  five  generations  his  ancestors  had  inhabited  this  inn. 

[  He  had  inherited  with  the  inn  a  large  stock  of  jokes  and  stories. 

It  was  midnight. 
J  The  night  was  bitterly  cold. 
There  was  a  loud  knock  at  the  door  downstairs. 
The  knock  woke  me  out  of  a  sound  sleep. 

'  It  was  an  all-absorbing  bag. 

It  was  made  of  pigskin. 

It  had  leather  trimmings  of  a  different  shade. 
^The  top  was  fastened  with  an  ingenious  metal  lock. 


12. 


107.  The  compound  sentence.  A  compound  sentence  consists 
of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  related  to  each  other  in  thought. 
As  a  member  of  a  compound  sentence,  each  simple  sentence 
is  called  an  independent  clause.  The  relation  between  these 
clauses  may  be  indicated  i)y  appropriate  conjunctions,  or  the 
conjunction  may  be  omitted  if  the  relation  is  clearly  implied. 

1.  The  house  rang  with  laughter,  and  the  air  was  filled  with  the 
fragrance  of  tropical  fruits. 

2.  They  uttered  no  cry  ;  not  a  sound  escaped  them. 

Skill  in  the  construction  of  compound  sentences  demands 
(i)  clear  thinking  to  discover  the  correct  relationship  between 
the  thoughts  that  are  to  be  connected  and  (2)  a  knowledge  of 
the  right  connective  words  to  indicate  this  relationship  ac- 


1 66  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

curately.  There  are  six  principal  thought  relationships  that 
may  exist  between  the  independent  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence.  Most  of  these  are  indicated  by  appropriate  connec- 
tives; but  when  the  thought  relationship  is  entirely  clear 
without  the  connective,  the  omission  of  the  latter  sometimes 
improves  the  force  and  euphony  of  the  sentence. 

Below  are  given  the  six  principal  relationships  between  the 
clauses  of  the  compound  sentence.  Study  the  illustrative  sen- 
tences closely  and  notice  the  typical  connectives  in  each  list, 

I.  Continuation  or  repetition  oj  the  thought.  Example:  The 
doors  were  opened,  and  the  audience  came  crowding  in.  Con- 
nectives :  and,  besides,  also,  moreover,  likewise,  furthermore. 

Note.  In  many  instances  the  connection  between  clauses  in  either 
of  these  relationships  is  so  clearly  implied  that  no  connective  is  used. 
The  following  sentences  are  illustrations  : 

1.  The  book  is  attractive  in  appearance;  it  is  printed  on  parchment  paper 
in  large,  clear  type  and  is  illustrated  with  a  number  of  superb  etchings. 

2.  The  house  was  dilapidated  ;  the  yard  was  overgrown  with  weeds  and 
grass ;  the  front  gate  hung  by  a  single  rusty  hinge. 

3.  Last  night  was  a  wild  night :  the  thunder  roared ;  the  wind  blew  a 
gale  ;  the  rain  fell  in  torrents. 

Observe  that  wherever  a  connective  has  been  omitted  a  semi- 
colon or  a  colon  has  been  used  (see  section  129,  rule  i,  and  sec- 
tion 130,  rule  2). 

2.  Contrast.  Example:  The  bridal  party  assembled,  but  no 
bridegroom  appeared.  Connectives:  but,  however,  whereas, 
yet,  still,  notwithstanding,  on  the  other  hand. 

3.  Alternation.  Example:  This  machine  is  not  rightly  ad- 
justed, or  else  we  do  not  know  how  to  operate  it.  Connectives : 
or,  nor,  else,  otherwise. 

4.  Correlation.  Example :  Not  only  did  his  friends  desert  him, 
but  his  family  also  disowned  him.  Connectives :  both  .  .  .  and. 
not  only  .  .  .  but  also,  either  .  .  .  or,  neither  .  .  .  nor. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      167 

5.  Consequence  or  inference.  Example:  He  has  wealth  and  the 
ablest  lawyers ;  therefore  his  chance  of  acquittal  is  good.  Con- 
nectives: hence,  therefore,  thus,  consequently,  accordingly,  so. 

6.  Reason.  Example:  The  temperature  must  have  fallen 
considerably  during  the  night,  for  I  see  icicles  on  the  trees. 
Connective:  for. 

Note.  The  second  clause  in  the  sentence  above  does  not  state  the 
reason  for  the  truth  of  the  first  clause,  but  rather  acquaints  us  with 
the  reason  for  the  speaker's  or  writer's  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  the 
first  clause.  An  independent  clause  of  reason  should  not  be  confused 
with  a  dependent  clause  of  cause  or  reason.  The  italicized  dependent 
clauses  in  the  following  complex  sentences  state  the  reason  for  the 
truth  of  the  independent  clauses  :  Ice  floats  because  it  is  lighter  than 
water.  Since  a  heavy  frost  came  late  i?i  the  season,  the  fruit  crop  was 
seriously  injured.  (See  the  fifth  relationship  expressed  by  adverbial 
clauses,  p.  175.) 

Two  cautions  should  be  observed  in  the  use  of  the  com- 
pound sentence.  First,  we  should  avoid  overworking  the  com- 
pound sentence  in  our  writing.  This  we  can  do  by  judiciously 
employing  simple  and  complex  sentences,  each  of  which  is 
more  flexible  than  the  compound  sentence.  Secondly,  we 
should  not  allow  ourselves  to  adopt  the  careless  habit  of  con- 
necting the  members  of  every  compound  sentence  with  either 
and  or  but.  To  break  ourselves  of  this  habit,  or  to  avoid 
falling  into  it,  we  should  use  other  conjunctions  that  indicate 
the  same  respective  relationships  as  and  and  but.  Better  still, 
we  should  try  to  express  by  means  of  a  simple  or  a  complex 
sentence  the  thought  that  we  have  expressed  in  a  compound 
sentence. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  improper  use  of  a  compound  sentence 
for  a  complex  sentence  see  section  172,  rule  2.  For  a  discussion 
of  the  wrong  punctuation  of  a  compound  sentence  see  section 
128,  rule  7,  Caution,  and  section  171. 


1 68  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I 

Write  compound  sentences  in  which  you  use  properly  each  of  the 
connectives  listed  under  the  six  relationships  between  the  clauses 
of  the  compound  sentence.  Think  clearly  and  choose  your  connec- 
tives with  care.  Write  other  compound  sentences  in  which  the 
relation  between  the  clauses  is  clearly  implied  without  the  use  of  a 
connective,    (Preserve  this  exercise  for  later  use.) 

II 

In  studying  the  following  sentences  observe  these  directions: 
(i)  supply  the  proper  connective ;  (2)  substitute  other  connectives 
and  notice  the  change  in  meaning;  and  (3)  determine  which  con- 
nective most  accurately  shows  the  relationship  between  the  clauses. 

1.  He  is  poor, he  is  honest. 

2.  The  clouds  had  disappeared, the  day  was  ideal. 

3.  We  desired  good  seats  ;  we  made  our  reservations  early. 

4.  I  do  not  wish  to  be  a  candidate, I  will  serve  if  I  am  elected. 

5.  She  must  derive  an  enormous  income  from  her  investments, 

she  pays  a  large  income  tax. 

6.  I  have  no  suitable  dress  to  wear ;  I  shall  remain  at  home. 

7.  We  tried  to  persuade  her,  she  refused  to  come. 

8.  He  studied  hard  for  the  examination ;  he  failed. 

9.  Shall  I  take  the  package,  will  you  deliver  it? 

10.  The  lights  went  out  at  ten  o'clock ;  I  did  not  solve  all  my 

problems  in  algebra. 

Ill 

Add  to  each  of  the  following  statements  an  independent  clause 
that  will  result  in  a  well-constructed  compound  sentence.  Be  sure 
that  each  added  clause  expresses  a  closely-related  thought. 

1.  The  players  were  not  conscious  of  any  special  regard  for  each 
other. 

2.  The  mountain-climbers  met  with  many  narrow  escapes. 

3.  Thomas  A.  Edison  is  a  great  inventor. 

4.  The  table  was  the  picture  of  abundance.    (Give  particulars.) 


SENTENXE  GR.\MMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      169 

5.  The  street  was  picturesque.    (Give  details  showing  this.) 

6.  With  the  dawn  of  a  new  day  Boynton  quickly  forgot  his  recent 
experience. 

7.  The  memory  of  the  whole  transaction  flashed  before  him. 

8.  It  was  a  bitterly  cold  day  in  January. 

9.  We  should  learn  to  punctuate  intelligently. 
10.  Judge  Carlton's  life  was  an  active  one. 

IV 

In  the  following  exercise  point  out  in  each  compound  sentence 
the  independent  clauses  and  state  the  relationship  between  them. 
Indicate  all  coordinating  conjunctions.  Point  out  all  phrases  and 
classify  each  according  to  form  and  according  to  use. 

1.  The  children  had  rarely  ventured  into  the  field,  but  now  they 
crept  stealthily  across  the  old  stone  bridge. 

2.  Holmes  was,  like  Lowell,  a  humorist ;  and,  like  Lowell,  he  knew 
how  to  be  earnest,  serious,  and  even  pathetic. 

3.  The  Langtons  must  have  gone  away  for  the  summer,  for  we 
have  seen  no  signs  of  life  about  their  house  for  the  past  week. 

4.  My  precise  examination  of  the  room  had  done  me  good,  but  I 
still  found  the  remoter  darkness  of  the  place  too  stimulating  for  the 
imagination. 

5.  His  eyes  goggled  with  earnestness ;  his  mouth  dropped  open  to 
catch  every  syllable  that  might  be  uttered ;  he  leaned  his  ear  almost 
on  the  doctor's  shoulder. 

6.  He  observed  others  closely  and  tried  to  profit  by  their  experi- 
ence ;  hence  he  was  spared  many  humiliating  reprimands. 

7.  She  will  probably  arrive  in  a  few  days,  for  a  letter  was  left  here 
for  her  today  by  the  postman. 

8.  The  number  of  employers  diminished ;  the  number  of  em- 
ployees increased. 

9.  Some  means  of  preventing  war  must  be  found,  else  the  same 
great  waste  of  life  and  property  from  which  humanity  has  suffered  in 
the  past  will  continue  to  blight  the  world  in  the   future. 

10.  The  steamship  companies  have  advertised  the  attractions  of 
America  in  all  parts  of  Europe  ;  they  have  kept  agents  at  work  in 
many  countries  ;  they  have  been  an  important  factor  in  promoting 
immigration. 


170  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

V 

In  Chapter  X  make  a  careful  study  of  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon  in  separating  independent 
clauses.  Explain  the  punctuation  of  all  compound  sentences  in 
Exercise  II  and  Exercise  IV.  Examine  your  own  sentences  in  Ex- 
ercise I  and  Exercise  III  to  see  whether  they  are  correctly  punc- 
tuated.  Explain  your  punctuation  of  each  sentence. 

VI 

From  your  reading  copy  and  bring  to  class  ten  compound  sen- 
tences. Underscore  the  connective,  if  one  is  used.  After  each 
sentence  state  the  relationship  between  the  independent  clauses. 
Find  examples  of  all  six  types.  Explain  the  punctuation  used  in 
each  sentence. 

108.  The  complex  sentence.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of 
one  independent  clause  and  of  one  or  more  dependent,  or  sub- 
ordinate, clauses.  The  construction  of  the  complex  sentence 
demands  considerable  skill.  Clear  thinking  is  necessary  to 
determine  which  part  of  the  sentence-thought  should  be  put  in 
the  independent  clause  as  the  main  thought  and  which  part  or 
parts  should  be  subordinated  to  it.  In  addition,  we  must  use 
care  in  the  choice  of  the  right  connective  to  denote  accurately 
the  relationship  intended.  Because  of  the  larger  number  of 
thought  relationships  between  independent  and  dependent 
clauses,  and  because  of  a  correspondingly  greater  number  of 
connective  and  introductory  words,  the  complex  sentence  is 
superior  to  the  compound  in  variety  and  flexibility. 

A  dependent  clause,  like  a  phrase,  is  used  as  a  single  part  of 
speech;  but,  unlike  a  phrase,  it  contains  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

("What  he  had  said. 
1.  <  Whom  we  met. 

[When  the  whistle  sounded. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      171 

Note  that,  although  each  of  these  clauses  contains  a  subject 
and  a  predicate,  in  no  case  does  it  express  a  complete  thought. 
The  mind  waits  for  something  to  be  added. 

{I  told  her  what  he  had  said. 
The  man  whom  we  met  was  my  uncle. 
The  game  began  when  the  whistle  sounded. 

By  joining  to  the  clauses  in  group  i  other  clauses,  as  in 
group  2,  we  have  made  three  assertions  and  have  thus  com- 
pleted the  statement  of  thoughts  which  the  original  clauses  left 
incomplete.  In  other  words,  the  clauses  of  group  i  are  de- 
pendent on  other  clauses  for  their  meaning  and  are  called  de- 
pendent, or  subordinate,  clauses.  The  clauses  "I  told  her," 
"The  man  was  my  uncle,"  and  "The  game  began"  are  inde- 
pendent, because  they  make  assertions  which  are  not  dependent 
on  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  They  could  stand  alone.  The  sen- 
tences in  group  2,  each  of  which  contains  an  independent  clause 
and  a  dependent  clause,  are  complex  sentences. 

109.  Uses  of  dependent  clauses.  According  to  their  use  in 
the  complex  or  the  compound-complex  sentence,  dependent 
clauses  are  classified  as  noun  clauses,  adjective  clauses,  and 
adverbial  clauses.  In  general,  they  have  the  same  constructions 
as  the  part  of  speech  whose  function  they  perform. 

110.  Noun  clauses.  A  noun  clause  performs  the  office  of  a 
noun.  It  may  be  introduced  by  such  words  as  the  following: 
(i)  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  and  relative  and  inter- 
rogative adjectives,  as  who,  which,  what,  whoever,  whichever, 
whatever,  whoso,  whosoever,  whichsoever,  whatsoever ;  (2)  con- 
junctive adverbs,  as  where,  when,  how,  why;  (3)  other  con- 
junctional words,  as  that,  whether,  if,  but  or  but  that  {  =  that 
not).  Often  the  substantival  conjunction  that  introducing  a 
noun  clause  is  omitted,  especially  in  speech. 

He  said  [that]  he  would  write  to  me. 


172  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  sentences  given  below  illustrate  the  seven  principal 
constructions  of  noun  clauses.  In  each  sentence  point  out  the 
noun  clause  and  be  sure  that  you  understand  its  use. 

1.  Who  the  stranger  is  does  not  interest  me.    (Subject  of  a  verb) 

2.  We  could  not  believe  that  he  was  deceiving  us.    (Direct  object  of 
a  verb) 

3.  He  gave  whomever  he  encountered  a  helping  hand.    (Indirect 
object  of  a  verb) 

4.  We  had  an  excellent  view  of  the  stage  from  where  we  sat.  (Object 
of  a  preposition) 

5.  The  fact  that  he  had  set  out  very  early  accounted  for  his  escape. 
(In  apposition) 

6.  The  report  was  that  he  had  drowned.    (Predicate  nominative) 

7.  Honesty,  good  judgment,  and  industry  made  them  who  they  are 
in  the  financial  world.    (Predicate  objective) 

EXERCISES 
I 

Point  out  the  noun  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  and  tell 
how  each  is  used : 

1.  That  the  world  is  round  has  been  proved. 

2.  The  fact  that  the  forests  are  being  cut  down  accounts  for  the 
scarcity  of  water. 

3.  Often  we  judge  a  person  by  how  he  dresses. 

4.  My  fear  is  that  we  shall  be  late. 

5.  Mother  asked  me  where  I  had  been. 

6.  Who  knows  but  that  the  river  may  overflow  tonight  ? 

7.  The  town  promised  to  give  whoever  should  capture  the  robbers  a 
reward  of  one  thousand  dollars. 

8.  Wealth  alone  has  made  him  who  he  is. 

9.  It  is  in  dispute  why  he  did  this. 

10.  Did  you  learn  whether  he  passed  in  his  examination? 

II 

Write  two  original  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  seven  con- 
structions of  noun  clauses. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      173 

IIL  Adjective  clauses.  An  adjective  clause  performs  the 
function  of  an  adjective. 

The  man  who  knocked  is  a  plumber. 

Note  that  the  clause  in  italics  modifies  the  noun  man  and 
tells  which  man  is  meant.  If  an  adjective  clause  limits  or  re- 
stricts the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  this  way,  it  is  called 
a  restrictive  clause.  Such  a  clause  cannot  be  omitted  without 
changing  the  meaning  of  the  entire  sentence. 

Aunt  Mary,  who  visits  us  each  summer,  is  mother's  only  sister. 

In  this  sentence  the  clause  in  italics,  though  grammatically 
a  modifier  of  a  noun,  is  not  an  indispensable  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. It  may  be  omitted  without  changing  the  meaning  of  the 
independent  clause,  though  by  its  use  we  gain  additional  in- 
formation. Such  a  parenthetical  clause  is  called  nonrestrictive 
or  unrcstrictive. 

Observe  that  a  restrictive  clause  requires  no  punctuation, 
whereas  a  nonrestrictive  clause  is  separated  by  a  comma  or 
commas  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  (see  section  128,  rule  6). 

Adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  (i)  relative  pronouns, 
who,  which,  that,  but  (=  that  not)  and  (2)  conjunctive  ad- 
verbs, where,  when,  whence,  whither,  why,  wherein,  wherewith, 
whereon,  whereat,  whereupon,  whereby. 

EXERCISES 

I 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  adjective  clauses.  Tell 
what  word  each  modifies  and  explain  whether  the  clause  is  restric- 
tive or  nonrestrictive.  Indicate  the  introductory  word  in  each  case 
and  explain  the  use  of  that  word  in  its  clause. 

1.  This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built. 

2.  The  farmer  whose  horse  was  stolen  consulted  a  lawyer. 


174  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  The  old  chapel  belfry,  where  generations  of  bats  have  lived, 
was  struck  by  lightning. 

4.  Those  whose  names  were  called  rose. 

5.  The  house  where  he  was  born  yet  stands. 

6.  We  who  went  with  him  fared  royally. 

7.  My  older  brother,  whose  judgment  I  respect,  advised  me  to  go 
to  college. 

8.  There  is  no  one  born  but  must  die. 

9.  The  ground  whereon  we  stood  trembled. 

10.  Our  high-school  building,  which  was  erected  in  191 2,  is  a  fire- 
proof structure. 

11.  He  lacks  the  means  wherewith  he  may  clothe  his  family, 

12.  It  is  difficult  to  teach  a  cat,  which  is  naturally  active,  any  kind 
of  athletic  tricks. 

13.  The  day  when  he  returns  will  be  a  holiday. 

14.  The  reason  why  we  fail  is  usually  that  we  lack  a  definite  inten- 
tion to  win. 

15.  The  foreman,  whom  everyone  trusted,  was  never  suspected  of 
the  murder. 

II 

Find  in  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  ten  restrictive  and  ten 
nonrestrictive  adjective  clauses, 

III 

Write  ten  original  sentences  containing  restrictive  adjective 
clauses, 

IV 

Write  ten  original  sentences  containing  nonrestrictive  adjec- 
tive clauses.  Punctuate  each  sentence  correctly  (see  section  128, 
rule  6). 

112.  Adverbial  clauses.  An  adverbial  clause  performs  the 
function  of  an  adverb.  It  is  introduced  by  conjunctive  adverbs 
and  subordinating  conjunctions.  The  nine  adverbial  relation- 
ships expressed  by  adverbial  clauses  are  the  following: 

I.  Time.  Example :  The  audience  rose  and  cheered  when  the 
celebrated  speaker  was  presented  by  the  chairman.    Introduc- 


SENTENCE  GR.\MMATIC\LLY  CONSIDERED      175 

tory  words :  when,  before,  after,  while,  since,  till,  ere,  as,  when- 
ever, now  that,  as  soon  as,  as  long  as,  so  long  as. 

2.  Place.  Example:  He  remained  where  I  left  him.  Intro- 
ductory words:  where,  wherever,  whence,  whither,  whenccso- 
ever,  whithersoever. 

3.  Manner.  Example:  She  walked  as  if  she  were  going  to 
a  bargain  sale.   Introductory  words :  as,  as  if,  as  though. 

Note.  Like  should  never  be  used  for  as  or  as  if  (see  section  164). 

4.  Condition.  Example:  He  would  have  passed  in  his  exami- 
nation if  he  had  studied  harder.  Introductory  words:  //.  un- 
less (=  if  not),  except,  provided,  provided  that,  on  condition 
that,  in  case  that,  but  that  (=  if  not),  so  that,  and  such  impera- 
tives as  suppose,  let,  say.  Often  the  introductory  word  is 
omitted,  as  in  the  sentence  "Had  I  another  life  to  live,  I  could 
not  wish  for  greater  happiness." 

5.  Cause.  Example:  We  walked  home  because  the  cars  had 
stopped  running.  Introductory  words:  because,  since,  for,  as, 
that  ("He  grieved  that  his  friend  should  have  failed  him  thus"), 

6.  Purpose.  Example :  We  left  early  in  order  that  we  might 
not  miss  the  train.  Introductory  words :  in  order  that,  that,  so 
that  ("He  lent  me  his  key  so  that  I  might  open  the  door"), 

7.  Result.  Example:  During  the  night  it  snowed  so  hard 
that  all  traffic  was  suspended  for  two  days.  (Notice  that,  in 
addition  to  expressing  result,  the  dependent  clause  expresses 
degree:  in  this  sentence  it  tells  how  hard  it  snowed.)  Introduc- 
tory words:  that,  so  that,  but,  but  that.  ("It  never  rains  but 
it  pours."  In  this  sentence  but  is  equivalent  to  that  not.  The 
sentence  means  "It  never  rains  that  it  does  not  pour.") 

8.  Degree  or  comparison.  Example:  His  mind  is  as  sluggish 
as  his  body  is  indolent.  Introductory  words :  as  ...  as.  just 
as,  than,  so  far  as,  by  as  much  as  .  .  .  by  so  much,  as  far  as, 
in  proportion  as. 


176  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

9.  Concessions.  Example:  Though  I  regard  him  as  honest,  I 
think  that  he  should  not  be  trusted  too  far.  Introductory 
words :  though,  although,  whether,  however,  no  matter,  while, 
notwithstanding,  notwithstanding  that,  whatever,  whichever, 
even  if  {''Even  if  you  disagree  with  his  beliefs,  you  will  surely 
like  him  as  a  man"). 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  adverbial  clauses  and 
tell  what  relation  each  expresses.  Indicate  the  introductory  words 
in  the  adverbial  clauses. 

1.  I  do  as  I  must,  but  she  does  as  she  likes. 

2.  The  apples  froze  because  they  were  left  out  of  doors. 

3.  Where  thou  goest,  I  will  go. 

4.  Unless  you  speak  distinctly,  you  will  not  be  understood. 

5.  As  we  came  out  of  the  theater,  father  met  us. 

6.  We  study  that  we  may  learn. 

7.  Should  you  meet  him,  tell  him  that  I  have  gone  home. 

8.  One  plays  as  well  as  the  other. 

9.  No  matter  how  late  you  may  arrive,  telephone  me  at  once,  for  I 
am  anxious  to  learn  the  result  of  your  trip. 

10.  He  slept  so  late  that  he  missed  his  class. 

11.  We  will  deliver  the  package  wherever  you  desire. 

12.  When  at  last  she  answered  the  telephone,  she  spoke  as  if  she 
were  angry. 

13.  Granted  that  I  fail,  the  effort  is  worth  while. 

14.  We  can  enjoy  even  unpleasant  surroundings,  provided  we  look 
for  something  interesting  in  them. 

15.  Since  youth  is  precious,  do  not  squander  it. 

16.  She  appeared  much  stronger  than  I  had  expected. 

17.  Suppose  you  had  both  wealth  and  fame,  you  would  not  be 
content. 

18.  As  long  as  there  is  life,  there  is  hope. 

19.  I  should  accompany  him,  but  that  I  know  that  he  would  object. 

20.  We  were  amused  that  he  should  make  such  a  mistake  as  that. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      177 


II 


In  Chapter  X  review  all  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma. 
Explain  the  punctuation  employed  in  the  sentences  in  Exercise  I. 
Change  the  position  of  the  adverbial  clause  in  the  sentence,  wherever 
it  is  possible,  and  account  for  the  use  or  the  omission  of  commas. 


EXERCISES  ON  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 


In  studying  the  following  exercise  observe  these  directions : 
(i)  Point  out  the  independent  and  the  dependent  clause.  (2)  Tell 
how  each  dependent  clause  is  used.  (3)  Mention  the  introductory 
word  in  each  dependent  clause. 

1.  I  confess  that  I  do  not  agree  with  you. 

2.  When  I  looked  again  I  saw  nothing. 

3.  They  can  wait  until  I  am  ready. 

4.  Then  came  the  thought  that  I  had  left  my  native  land. 

5.  The  wireless  telephone,  which  is  now  very  expensive,  may  soon 
be  within  the  reach  of  all. 

6.  He  paced  the  deck  as  he  talked. 

7.  Tell  me  where  he  has  gone. 

8.  I  could  not  enjoy  the  meal  that  the  steward  brought  me. 

9.  That  you  can  do  the  task  has  been  proved. 

10.  I  am  not  so  stupid  as  you  think  I  am. 

11.  The  elements  were  so  mixed  in  him  that  Nature  might  say  to 
all  the  world,  "This  is  a  man." 

12.  The  book  pleased  me  because  it  aroused  cherished  memories. 

13.  Do  you  not  see  why  I  cannot  grant  your  request? 

14.  A  plain  marble  slab  marks  the  spot  where  he  lies. 

15.  I  placed  the  flowers  where  she  would  see  them. 

16.  Take  the  good  the  gods  provide  thee. 

17.  Earnest  purpose  strives  ahead  while  dull  sloth  lags  behind. 

18.  I  will  ask  whether  he  has  left  a  message  for  you. 

19.  The  stupid  old  engine  would  not  budge,  even  if  the  fireman  should 
get  up  steam  with  attar  of  roses. 

20.  The  accident  occurred  at  a  time  when  we  least  expected  it. 


178  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

21.  When  he  came  does  not  concern  me  in  the  slightest. 

22.  I  am  interested  in  when  he  left. 

23.  Jason,  who  was  devoted  to  his  master,  would  not  admit  the 
reporters. 

24.  Whither  I  go  you  carmot  follow. 

25.  The  reason  why  he  fled  is  not  known. 

26.  Judge  Clark  is  the  man  to  whom  they  submitted  the  case. 

27.  His  present  address  is  what  I  wish  to  know. 

28.  He  promised  whoever  should  find  his  purse  a  liberal  reward. 

29.  Mr.  Arnold  Bennett  says  that  most  people  cannot  hve  on  twenty- 
four  hours  a  day. 

30.  When  the  Flood  came  along,  for  an  extra  monsoon, 
'Twas  Noah  constructed  the  first  pontoon. 

31.  When  they  said,  "The  train's  gone!" 
He  exclaimed,  "How  forlorn!" 

32.  He  who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 

33.  "We  must  strike  quickly,"  said  the  master,  "for  as  the  Book 
teaches,  'we  spend  our  years  as  a  tale  that  is  told.'" 

34.  "We  live,"  says  Stevenson,  "the  time  that  a  match  flickers." 

35.  The  manager,  who  speaks  Spanish,  will  interpret  what  he  is 
saying. 

36.  The  world  is  so  full  of  a  number  of  things, 
I'm  sure  we  should  all  be  as  happy  as  kings. 

37.  She  proclaimed  herself  ignorant  by  what  she  asked. 

38.  They  dined  on  mince  and  slices  of  quince. 
Which  they  ate  with  a  runcible  spoon. 

39.  While  reading  "Comus"  she  fell  asleep. 

40.  The  service  that  Spenser  rendered  our  literature  by  his  exquisite 
sense  of  harmony  is  incalculable. 

II 

Expand  the  following  statements  into  complex  sentences,  using 
as  many  phrases  and  dependent  clauses  as  you  can  in  each  sentence 
without  losing  the  meaning  of  the  principal  statement : 

1.  The  coming  week  will  be  notable. 

2.  A  reception  was  given  for  their  daughter,  Mary  Bryce. 

3.  The  hum  of  an  aeroplane  attracted  our  attention. 

4.  They  had  come  to  the  edge  of  the  cHff. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED     179 

5.  The  stranger  sat  by  the  kitchen  fire. 

6.  They  beheld  a  scene  of  disorder. 

7.  He  would  not  listen  to  reason. 

8.  The  guide  lived  in  a  secluded  spot. 

9.  His  father  gave  him  excellent  opportunities. 
10.  The  officers  approached  the  house  cautiously. 

Ill 

Combine  into  complex  sentences  the  followinp;  groups  of  words. 
Decide  first  upon  the  most  important  statement  and  make  this  the 
independent  clause.  The  other  statements  may  be  converted  into 
dependent  clauses  and  phrases,  according  to  their  importance.  In 
your  completed  sentences  tell  how  each  dependent  clause  is  used, 
classify  it,  and  name  the  introductory  word. 

fin  the  middle  of  the  yard  stood  a  man. 

iThe  yard  had  been  empty  a  few  minutes  before. 


2.  i 


What  he  prides  himself  on  is  this. 

Henry  the  Eighth  broke  the  head  of  one  of  his  ancestors. 
He  did  it  on  one  of  his  nocturnal  rambles.    (Phrase) 
.He  did  it  with  his  walking  stick.    (Phrase) 


3.  i 


We  had  been  camping  out  for  a  week. 
We  hailed  a  man  in  a  car. 
Our  matches  had  given  out. 
iHe  was  able  to  supply  us  with  a  few. 

He  lived  a  wanderer  and  a  fugitive  in  his  native  land. 
He  had  heroic  qualities. 

These  would  have  graced  a  civilized  warrior. 
These  would  have  rendered  him  the  theme  of  the  poet  and  the 
historian. 

r  My  father  failed  in  business. 
5.  \  My  family  came  to  America. 
[  I  was  then  six  years  old. 

{There  were  two  or  three  pretty  faces  among  the  women. 
The  keen  air  of  a  frosty  morning  had  given  them  a  bright- 
red  tint. 


i8o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

{The  dog  would  look  fondly  up  into  his  master's  face. 
The  dog  lay  stretched  at  his  feet. 
He  lazily  shifted  his  position. 

'  He  found  their  attention  gradually  diverted  to  other  talk  and 
other  subjects.  (Phrase) 

8.  -l  He  concluded  his  remarks  in  an  undertone  to  a  fat-headed 

old  gentleman. 
The  old  gentleman  sat  next  him. 

r  Everybody  had  his  tale  of  engine  troubles. 

9.  ■<  We  sat  around  the  dull  lamp  in  the  cabin. 

[All  hoped  for  better  roads  for  the  rest  of  the  journey. 

'He  was  accompanied  by  the  redoubtable  Bantam. 
He  was  a  little  rat  of  a  pony.    (Phrase) 
10.  ■{  He  had  a  shaggy  mane.    (Phrase) 
He  stood  dozing  by  the  roadside. 
He  was  unmindful  of  his  approaching  fate.    (Phrase) 

IV 

In  Chapter  X  review  all  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma, 
the  semicolon,  and  the  colon.  Explain  all  the  punctuation  found 
in  the  sentences  in  Exercise  I  above.  Examine  your  own  sentences 
in  Exercise  II  and  Exercise  III  to  see  whether  they  are  correctly 
punctuated.    Explain  your  punctuation  of  each  sentence. 

113.  The  compound-complex  sentence.  A  compound-complex 
sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  independent  clauses  and  at 
least  one  dependent  clause.  With  the  increase  of  our  ideas  and 
the  development  of  our  powers  of  expression  we  may  often  find 
the  compound-complex  sentence  useful.  We  should  not  form  the 
habit,  however,  of  using  long  and  involved  compound-complex 
sentences,  for  by  so  doing  we  are  likely  to  write  in  a  heavy, 
cumbersome  style  and  fail  to  make  our  meaning  altogether 
clear.  The  following  is  a  typical  compound-complex  sentence: 

.  Our  friends,  who  had  preceded  us,  promised  that  they  would  meet 
us ;  but  when  we  arrived  at  the  station,  they  were  nowhere  to  be  seen. 


SENTENCE  GELAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      i8i 

In  our  use  of  the  compound-complex  sentence  we  should  not 
overload  it  with  too  many  dependent  clauses;  otherwise  the 
main  statements  may  be  obscured  by  the  involved  structure. 


EXERCISE 

As  a  basis  for  the  study  of  sentence  variety  select  twelve  fairly 
long  paragraphs  (not  conversation)  from  four  reputable  modern 
writers.  Choose  three  paragraphs  from  each  author  and  count  the 
number  of  simple,  compound,  complex,  and  compound-complex 
sentences  in  each  paragraph.  Next,  find  the  total  number  of  each 
kind  of  sentence  used  by  each  writer.  Lastly,  find  the  total  num- 
ber of  each  kind  of  sentence  used  by  all  four  writers.  Do  you  find 
as  many  compound  and  compound-complex  sentences  as  simple 
and  complex  sentences?  Do  you  find  as  many  complex  sentences 
as  simple  sentences?  What  does  this  e.xercise  indicate  as  to  the 
practice  of  these  four  writers  ? 

114.  Kinds  of  sentences  according  to  use.  According  to  their 
use,  sentences  are  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and 
exclamatory. 

A  declarative  sentence  makes  an  assertion  or  statement. 

A  person  is  known  by  the  company  he  keeps. 

An  interrogative  sentence  asks  a  question. 
Are  you  interested  in  debating  ? 

An  imperative  sentence  states  a  command. 

Make  as  many  persons  happy  as  you  can. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  a  declarative,  interrogative,  or  im- 
perative sentence  uttered  under  the  influence  of  strong  feeling. 

1.  "Peace  has  been  declared  !"  they  shouted. 

2.  "How  could  you  make  such  a  mistake  !  "  she  cried. 


1 82  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Clauses  beginning  with  how  or  what  may  be  used  in  exclama- 
tions, the  principal  verb  often  being  implied.  Such  clauses  are 
followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

1.  [See]  What  a  blunder  you  have  made ! 

2.  How  dearly  you  have  paid  for  your  ride ! 

3.  What  a  beautiful  rose  that  is  ! 

115.  Phrases  and  dependent  clauses  incorrectly  used  as  sen- 
tences. A  sentence,  as  we  have  learned,  is  the  expression  of  a 
complete  thought  in  words.  Before  any  group  of  words  can 
express  a  thought  it  must  have  both  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 
A  phrase  does  not  contain  both  a  subject  and  a  predicate ;  there- 
fore it  cannot  express  a  thought,  and  for  this  reason  cannot  be 
used  as  a  sentence. 

A  dependent  clause,  though  it  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate, 
cannot  express  a  complete  thought,  for  its  meaning  is  dependent 
upon  its  relationship  to  the  thought  expressed  by  the  inde- 
pendent clause  with  which  it  is  used.  Without  its  independent 
clause  the  dependent  clause  has  no  definite  meaning.  For  this 
reason  a  dependent  clause  cannot  be  used  as  a  sentence. 

We  should  at  all  times  avoid  writing  a  phrase  or  a  dependent 
clause  as  a  sentence,  for  each  is  merely  a  fragment  of  a  sen- 
tence (see  section  170). 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  classify  each  group  of  words  as  (i)  a 
phrase,  (2)  a  dependent  clause,  or  (3)  a  sentence.  Make  a  sentence 
in  which  you  correctly  use  each  phrase  and  each  dependent  clause. 

1.  That  we  had  taken  him  by  surprise  was  evident. 

2.  When  we  rose  the  next  morning,  having  slept  well. 

3.  Through  no  fault  of  his. 

4.  Leaving  the  old  inn  at  sunrise  and  traveling  in  an  easterly 
direction  all  day. 

5.  What  a  perfect  day  it  was ! 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      183 

6.  That  being  our  only  hope. 

7.  Whom  he  said  he  had  met  the  year  before. 

8.  Though  the  whole  experience  left  no  pleasant  memor>-. 

9.  If  that  is  true  and  if  conditions  are  as  favorable  as  you  have 
been  informed. 

10.  To  relieve  his  suffering  somewhat. 

11.  To  make  such  a  scene  was  not  my  intention. 

12.  While  the  gayety  was  at  its  height. 

13.  Not  that  he  intended  to  act  dishonestly. 

14.  The  hare  limped  trembling  through  the  frozen  grass. 

15.  W'herever  he  happened  to  find  anyone  to  listen  to  his  story. 

16.  When  Earth's  last  picture  is  painted. 

17.  Not  failure,  but  low  aim,  is  crime. 

18.  One  impulse  from  a  vernal  wood. 

19.  That  a  wise  man  may  be  taught  by  a  fool. 

20.  During  his  entire  career  of  more  than  forty  years  of  public  service. 

21.  In  the  very  heart  of  one  of  the  most  populous  cities  of  the  world. 

22.  Repeatedly  the  old  guide  had  warned  them  of  the  danger. 

23.  Some  of  us  call  it  autumn,  and  others  call  it  God. 
2'4.  Gazing  from  the  dizzy  height  as  if  entranced. 

25.  While  through  all  the  silent  house  she  wandered. 

26.  Because  I  distinctly  remember  seeing  such  a  man  leave  the 
bank  as  I  entered. 

27.  Standing  on  tiptoe  and  reaching  high  with  both  hands  as  if 
longing  to  possess  one  of  the  bright  stars. 

28.  In  much  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell  of  the  weird  adventure. 

29.  Thus  arriving  on  time  in  spite  of  the  delay. 

30.  And  much  more  interesting,  I  think. 

31.  In  order  to  keep  my  appointment  with  him. 

32.  Unimpressed  by  all  that  he  had  witnessed  and  heedless  of  our 
counsel. 

33.  A  book  that  I  have  greatly  enjoyed  reading  and  re-reading. 

34.  Whose  place  it  will  be  ditHkult  to  fill. 

116.  Summary.  A  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  complete 
thought  in  words. 

Classified  according  to  their  form,  sentences  are  simple,  com- 
pound, complex,  and  compound-complex. 


1 84  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  contains  but  one  sub- 
ject and  one  predicate.  A  simple  sentence  may,  however,  have 
a  compound  subject,  a  compound  predicate,  or  a  compound 
subject  and  a  compound  predicate;  but  it  must  not  contain 
more  than  one  independent  proposition. 

A  simple  sentence  may  contain  any  number  of  phrases.  A 
phrase  is  a  group  of  closely  related  words  that  does  not  contain 
a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

According  to  form,  phrases  are  classified  as  follows :  ( i )  prep- 
ositional phrases,  (2)  participial  phrases,  (3)  infinitive  phrases, 
and  (4)  gerund  (or  verbal-noun)  phrases. 

According  to  use,  phrases  are  classified  as  follows :  ( i )  noun 
phrases,  (2)  adjective  phrases,  (3)  adverbial  phrases,  (4)  verb 
phrases,  and  (5)  independent  phrases. 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences that  are  related  to  each  other  in  thought.  As  a  member 
of  a  compound  sentence  each  simple  sentence  is  called  an 
independent  clause. 

The  six  principal  relationships  between  the  clauses  of  the 
compound  sentence  are  as  follows:  (i)  continuation  or  repeti- 
tion of  the  thought,  (2)  contrast,  (3)  alternation,  (4)  correla- 
tion, (5)  consequence  or  inference,  and  (6)  reason. 

We  should  avoid  overworking  the  compound  sentence,  and 
should  exercise  care  in  the  choice  of  the  proper  connective  in 
each  case  (if  a  connective  is  needed). 

A  complex  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  clause  and 
one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

A  clause  that  has  no  definite  meaning  except  when  it  is  used 
in  relation  to  some  word  or  words  in  an  independent  clause  is 
called  a  dependent  clause. 

According  to  their  use  in  the  sentence,  dependent  clauses 
may  be  classified  as  (i)  noun  clauses,  (2)  adjective  clauses, 
and  (3)  adverbial  clauses. 


SENTENCE  GRAMMATICALLY  CONSIDERED      185 

A  noun  clause  performs  the  function  of  a  noun.  The  principal 
constructions  of  noun  clauses  are  the  following:  (i)  subject  of 
a  verb,  (2)  direct  object  of  a  verb.  {7,)  indirect  object  of  a  verb. 
(4)  object  of  a  preposition,  (5)  in  apposition,  (6)  predicate 
nominative,  and  (7)  predicate  objective. 

An  adjective  clause  performs  the  function  of  an  adjective. 
It  may  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  two  ways:  (i)  restric- 
tively  and  (2)  nonrestrictively. 

An  adjective  clause  that  is  used  restrictively  requires  no 
punctuation,  but  one  that  is  used  nonrestrictively  should  be 
set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  and  a  mark 
of  end  punctuation  or  by  commas. 

An  adverbial  clause  performs  the  function  of  an  adverb.  It 
may  stand  in  any  one  of  the  following  relationships  to  the 
independent  clause:  (i)  time,  (2)  place,  (3)  manner,  (4)  con- 
dition, (5)  cause,  (6)  purpose,  (7)  result,  (8)  degree  or  com- 
parison, and  (9)  concession. 

A  compound-complex  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent clauses  and  at  least  one  dependent  clause.  We  should 
practice  using  simple  and  complex  sentences,  and  should  use 
compound  and  compound-complex  sentences  sparingly. 

Classified  according  to  use,  sentences  are  declarative,  in- 
terrogative, imperative,  and  exclamatory. 

Since  a  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  complete  thought  in 
words,  a  phrase  or  a  dependent  clause,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  fragment  of  a  sentence,  should  never  be  written  as  a 
sentence. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED 

117.  Kinds  of  sentences.  Rhetorically  considered,  sentences 
are  classified  as  loose,  periodic,  and  balanced,  according  to  their 
construction. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  that  may  be  brought  to  a  grammatical 
close  before  the  end  is  reached. 

He  was  sitting  before  the  fire  in  a  large  armchair  when  we  entered. 

In  this  sentence  the  meaning  is  clear  if  we  stop  after  jire  or 
after  armchair.  Simple  and  complex  sentences  are  loose  or 
periodic,  according  to  their  order  of  arrangement.  Every  com- 
pound sentence,  because  of  its  form,  is  loose. 

A  periodic  sentence  is  one  that  is  not  grammatically  com- 
plete until  the  end  is  reached. 

Having  passed  the  house  every  day  for  two  years,  and  knowing  that 
the  man  was  a  cripple,  I  could  not  believe  what  the  next-door  neighbor 
told  me. 

This  sentence  is  so  constructed  that  it  is  not  grammatically 
complete  at  any  point  before  the  period.  Most  simple  and  com- 
plex loose  sentences  may  be  made  periodic  by  transposing  ad- 
verbial phrases  and  clauses  to  the  beginning  of  the  sentence. 
A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts  are  alike,  in 
that  they  are  constructed  according  to  the  same  pattern. 

1.  To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

2.  Helen  is  a  girl  from  the  country ;  Marian  is  a  girl  from  the  city. 

3.  It  is  the  age  that  forms  the  man,  not  the  man  that  forms  the  age. 

4.  On  the  one  hand,  the  dangers  are  real ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
benefits  are  great. 

i86 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       187 

Here  subject  balances  subject,  and  predicate  balances  predi- 
cate. In  a  balanced  sentence  the  clauses  are  similar  in  form  but 
are  usually  contrasted  in  meaning. 

118.  Effect  of  different  kinds  of  sentences.  Our  natural  tend- 
ency is  to  write  loose  sentences,  which  in  an  easy,  somewhat 
familiar  style  may  be  quite  appropriate.  The  use  of  a  large 
number  of  such  sentences  in  formal  writing,  however,  gives  an 
impression  of  carelessness  and  lack  of  fmish.  Periodic  sen- 
tences add  strength  and  dignity  to  our  writing,  but  if  used 
exclusively  they  make  the  style  stiff  and  formal.  Balanced  sen- 
tences are  not  usually  suitable  in  narration  or  in  description, 
but  are  well  adapted  to  expository  and  argumentative  writing 
in  which  persons,  things,  or  ideas  are  contrasted.  The  following 
balanced  sentences  from  Dr.  Johnson's  essay  "The  Life  of 
Pope"  illustrate  this  latter  use: 

The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is 
cautious  and  uniform.  Dryden  observes  the  motions  of  his  own 
mind ;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rules  of  composition. 
Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid  ;  Pope  is  always  smooth, 
uniform,  and  gentle.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into 
inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant 
vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven  by  the  scythe  and 
leveled  by  the  roller. 

Short  sentences  give  animation  to  the  style,  but  a  constant 
use  of  them  becomes  tiresome  and  detracts  from  smoothness  of 
expression.  The  chief  merit  of  the  long  sentence  is  that  it 
brings  a  large  number  of  related  particulars  into  view  and 
shows  their  relations  more  clearly  or  more  economically  than 
would  several  short  sentences.  The  mind,  however,  tires  of  any 
one  style  of  construction  if  it  be  carried  to  excess.  Variety  is 
obtained  by  the  judicious  use  of  loose  and  periodic,  long  and 
short,  sentences. 


1 88  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 


Classify  the  following  sentences  according  to  their  grammatical 
and  rhetorical  construction,  and,  when  possible,  change  the  loose 
sentences  to  the  periodic  form : 

1.  The  management  thought  best  to  dismiss  the  audience,  although 
there  was  no  immediate  danger. 

2.  A  tennis  tournament  will  be  held  at  the  Beachcroft  Country 
Club  on  May  28  and  29,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Allston  Athletic 
Association. 

3.  The  great  burdens  he  had  borne,  the  terrible  anxieties  and  per- 
plexities that  had  disturbed  his  life,  and  the  peaceful  scenes  he  had 
forever  left  behind  swept  across  his  memory. 

4.  The  artist  achieves  excellent  pictorial  results  in  each  of  these 
groups,  including  from  five  to  fifteen  persons  each. 

5.  He  paced  up  and  down  the  walk,  forgetful  of  everything  around 
him  and  intent  only  on  some  object  that  absorbed  his  mind,  his  hands 
behind  him,  his  hat  and  coat  off,  and  his  tall  form  bent  forward. 

6.  The  leaves  of  the  eucalyptus  trees  around  the  Plaza  drooped 
motionless,  limp  and  relaxed  under  the  scorching,  searching  blaze. 

7.  He  who  has  shared,  with  sympathy,  the  recounted  experience  of 
another  man  is  thereby  the  more  fitted  to  share  in  the  actual  lives  of 
his  fellows,  and,  knowing  mankind  better,  is  thereby  more  human. 

8.  If,  in  the  future,  an  age  of  general  well-being  is  to  arrive,  its 
children  will  turn,  as  all  men  who  have  the  opportunity  must,  to  what 
is  best  in  human  art — to  the  literature  of  Greece. 

9.  What  his  violins  were  to  Stradivarius,  and  his  frescoes  to  Leo- 
nardo, and  his  campaigns  to  Napoleon,  that  was  his  history  to  Ma- 
caulay. 

10.  My  friends  speak  flattery ;  my  enemies  speak  truth. 

11.  The  other  day,  as  I  walked  through  the  meadow,  it  seemed  to 
me  that  the  atmosphere  had  never  been  so  full  of  fragrance  before. 

12.  At  long  intervals,  from  out  the  sheltering  branches  of  elm  tree 
or  of  maple,  rose  the  dull-red  chimneys  of  a  farmhouse,  whose  door- 
ways and  windows  were  half  hidden  by  blossoming  lilacs  and  syringa 
bushes  ;  and  again,  on  some  green  sea  meadow  or  rocky  headland, 
stood  out  the  rough,  gray  stone  walls  of  a  rich  man's  summer  home. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       189 

II 

Express  in  a  well-constructed  [)eriodic  or  loose  sentence  the 
thought  contained  in  each  of  the  following  groups  of  sentences. 
Note  whether  you  have  made  a  simple,  a  complex,  a  compound,  or  a 
compound-complex  sentence. 

1.  The  farmer's  life  has  been  made  easier  of  late  years.  The  tele- 
phone keeps  him  in  touch  with  his  neighbors.  The  rural  deHvery  brings 
him  his  daily  paper.  The  gasoline  engine  does  a  great  deal  of  his  work. 
The  automobile  carries  him  quickly  to  town. 

2.  Nature  is  economical.  No  particle  of  matter  is  ever  destroyed, 
though  it  undergoes  numerous  changes  in  form  and  in  combination. 
Animals  furnish  plants  carbon  dioxide  as  food.  Plants,  in  return,  supply 
animals  with  vegetable  food  and  with  oxygen  to  breathe. 

3.  Mr.  Edison  and  Mr.  Burbank  are  two  of  the  greatest  benefactors 
of  mankind.  Consider  the  innumerable  conveniences  that  we  owe 
to  Mr.  Edison.  Our  gardens,  our  orchards,  and  our  dining-tables  give 
evidence  of  Mr.  Burbank's  wonderful  work.  In  the  Middle  Ages  each 
of  these  men  might  have  been  looked  upon  as  a  magician. 

4.  Fishing  from  a  kite  has  two  advantages.  The  fisherman  may 
stand  on  shore  while  his  bait  is  dropped  far  out  at  sea.  There  is  no 
shadow  to  frighten  timid  fish. 

5.  Modern  civilization  is  rapidly  recognizing  the  equal  rights  of 
men  and  women.  Both  have  the  same  educational  advantages.  They 
are  rapidly  becoming  politically  equal.  Industrially  women  compete 
successfully  with  men. 

Ill 

E.xplain  the  punctuation  of  all  sentences  in  Exercise  I  above. 

IV 

Explain  the  punctuation  of  the  five  sentences  that  you  made 
in  E.xercise  II  above. 

119.  The  essentials  of  a  sentence.  The  four  essentials  of  a 
sentence  are  unity,  coherence,  emphasis,  and  euphony. 


190  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

120.  Unity.  Since  the  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  single 
complete  thought,  the  first  essential  of  the  sentence  is  that  it 
shall  be  a  unit  and  show  this  oneness  of  thought. 

1.  A  sentence  violates  the  principle  of  unity  if  it  contains 
too  much.  That  is  to  say,  if  thoughts  that  are  not  closely 
enough  related  to  form  properly  one  sentence  are  crowded  into 
a  sentence  and  carelessly  linked  together  by  means  of  such  con- 
junctions as  and  and  but,  unity  is  violated. 

As  we  were  driving  out  into  the  country  yesterday,  we  met  a  young 
man  wearing  a  golf  suit,  and  we  passed  a  car  that  was  broken  down, 
and  on  our  way  home  we  stopped  at  Mr.  Beck's  to  get  some  flowers 
and  fresh  vegetables. 

Although  each  clause  has  the  same  subject,  the  sentence  as 
a  whole  is  not  a  unit,  because  it  combines  ideas  which  are  not 
closely  related.  The  sentence  in  its  present  form  contains  three 
sentences : 

As  we  were  driving  out  into  the  country  yesterday,  we  met  a  young 
man  wearing  a  golf  suit.  Later  we  passed  a  car  that  was  broken  down. 
On  our  way  home  we  stopped  at  Mr.  Beck's  to  get  some  flowers  and 
fresh  vegetables. 

To  possess  unity,  then,  a  sentence  must  not  contain  unrelated 
ideas. 

2.  A  sentenco  violates  the  principle  of  unity  if  it  contains 
too  little.  Such  violations  occur  whenever  a  simple,  a  complex, 
or  a  compound  sentence  is  improperly  written  as  two  separate 
sentences.  The  three  examples  that  follow  illustrate  this  fault. 

1.  He  walked  home  with  me.  Having  met  me  at  the  door  of  the 
office.    (Simple  sentence) 

2.  We  won  the  election.  Though  the  opposition  was  strong.  (Com- 
plex sentence) 

3.  I  was  late  this  morning.  But  I  will  be  on  time  hereafter.  (Com- 
pound sentence) 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       191 

The  phrase  "having  met  me  at  the  door  of  the  office,"  and 
the  dependent  clause  "though  the  opposition  was  strong," 
are  fragments  of  sentences.  They  have  no  definite  meaning 
except  in  relation  to  their  respective  independent  clauses.  The 
independent  clause  "but  I  will  be  on  time  hereafter''  is  related 
by  contrast  to  the  preceding  independent  clause  and,  combined 
with  it,  constitutes  a  single  unified  sentence.  The  three  sen- 
tences should  read : 

He  walked  home  with  me,  having  met  me  at  the  door  of  the  office. 
We  won  the  election,  though  the  opposition  was  strong. 
I  was  late  this  morning,  but  I  will  be  on  time  hereafter. 

Avoid  setting  off  as  separate  sentences  such  fragments  of 
sentences  as  phrases  and  dependent  clauses.  Do  not  write  as  dis- 
tinct simple  sentences  independent  clauses  that  should  be  united 
to  form  one  compound  sentence.   (See  sections  115  and  170.) 

3.  A  sentence  violates  unity  if  the  relationship  between  its 
parts  is  not  correctly  indicated  (see  section  172). 

Even  when  related  ideas  are  grouped  together  in  a  sentence, 
care  should  be  taken  to  show  this  relation  clearly.  This  may 
often  be  accomplished  by  the  proper  use  of  connectives  and 
by  intelligent  punctuation. 

I  am  not  surprised  that  their  team  lost  the  game,  they  were  poorly 
trained  and  were  overconfident. 

This  sentence  may  be  unified  in  two  ways: 

I  am  not  surprised  that  their  team  lost  the  game,  for  they  were 
poorly  trained  and  were  overconfident. 

I  am  not  surprised  that  their  team  lost  the  game  ;  they  were  poorly 
trained  and  were  overconfident. 

In  the  original  sentence  a  comma  is  used  where  we  should 
expect  a  period  or  a  semicolon.  This  misuse  of  the  comma  is 
called  the  comma  fault  or  comma  splice.  It  should  be  carefully 
avoided.   (For  a  discussion  of  the  comma  fault  see  section  171.) 


192  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

In  a  compound  sentence,  unity  is  often  obscured  through 
the  careless  choice  of  connectives. 

Helen  went  to  college,  and  Irene  became  a  motion-picture  actress. 

Here  the  relation  between  the  two  independent  clauses  seems 
to  be  contrast,  not  mere  addition.  The  sentence  should  there- 
fore read : 

Helen  went  to  college,  but  Irene  became  a  motion-picture  actress. 

Likewise,  in  a  complex  sentence,  unity  is  frequently  violated 
through  lack  of  care  in  choosing  connectives. 

The  patient's  condition  continued  to  grow  worse,  when  he  was  given 
every  attention. 

Here  the  relation  of  the  dependent  to  the  independent  clause 
appears  to  be  concession,  not  time.  The  unified  sentence  should 
read: 

The  patient's  condition  continued  to  grow  worse,  though  he  was 
given  every  attention. 

Often  a  compound  sentence  contains  in  one  of  its  clauses  a 
statement  which  should  be  made  subordinate. 

A  well-dressed  man  admitted  us  to  the  house,  and  we  afterward 
learned  that  he  was  the  thief. 

The  unity  of  the  sentence  may  be  improved  by  converting  it 
into  a  complex  sentence,  with  the  second  member  expressed  as 
a  subordinate  clause. 

A  well-dres.sed  man,  who  we  afterward  learned  was  the  thief,  ad- 
mitted us  to  the  house. 

Sometimes  a  complex  sentence  contains  in  a  subordinate 
clause  a  statement  which  should  be  made  coordinate  with  the 
independent  clause. 

I  employed  a  detective,  by  whose  aid  I  recovered  the  ring. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       193 

A  more  unified  sentence  results  if  the  compound  form  is  used. 
I  employed  a  detective,  and  l)y  his  aid  I  recovered  the  ring. 

4.  L'nity  in  the  sentence  is  frequently  violated  by  change  of 
the  point  of  view  (see  section  174). 

The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and  the  passengers  soon  crowded 
into  the  boats,  and  the  beach  was  reached  in  safety,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  island  received  them  with  the  utmost  kindness. 

Because  of  this  frequent  change  of  subject  the  mind  travels  in 
quick  succession  from  the  vessel  to  the  passengers,  and  then  to 
the  beach  and  the  inhabitants.  A  confusion  of  ideas  results. 
This  may  be  avoided  by  selecting  one  point  of  view,  and  by 
choosing  one  principal  clause,  to  which  the  others  may  be 
subordinated  as  phrases  and  dependent  clauses.  The  sentence 
then  reads : 

The  vessel  having  made  for  the  shore,  the  passengers  soon  crowded 
into  the  boats  and  safely  reached  the  beach,  where  they  were  received 
with  the  utmost  kindness  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island. 

Now  there  is  one  point  of  view,  that  of  the  passengers.  The 
first  independent  clause  in  the  original  sentence  has  been 
subordinated  as  a  phrase,  and  the  final  independent  clause  has 
been  made  dependent.  The  result  is  a  well-unified  comple.x 
sentence. 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  following  sentences  to  secure  unity  of  thought  and 
of  form : 

1.  His  little  girl  had  been  missing  for  two  days,  and  the  general  be- 
lief was  that  the  Indians  had  stolen  her,  and  such  proved  to  be  the  case. 

2.  Somebody  had  provided  native  fruits,  and  we  had  many  other 
delicacies. 

3.  These  birds  fly  swiftly  and  mostly  by  day,  and  their  food  con- 
sists of  seeds  and  berries  and  small  shellfish. 


194  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  I  asked  him  the  direction  to  the  park,  and  he  could  not  tell  me. 

5.  Everybody  made  a  rush  for  the  small  cold-drink  stand,  and  the 
proprietor  soon  sold  out  his  entire  stock. 

6.  His  past  hfe  was  investigated,  and  he  was  allowed  to  become  a 
member  of  the  order. 

7.  I  could  hear  the  sound  of  motors  humming  far  up  in  the  night 
sky,  and  they  made  me  feel  uncomfortable. 

8.  By  doing  this  the  bottle  gets  heated  round  the  stopper,  and  if 
a  thing  is  heated  it  expands. 

9.  He  has  no  ambition,  his  father  was  indolent,  he  let  the  boy  do 
as  he  pleased. 

10.  The  shore  of  this  island  was  rocky,  and  after  a  time  we  found 
a  place  suitable  for  landing  and  began  preparations  for  our  dinner. 

11.  The  people  of  this  island  are  lazy,  and  they  steal  all  they  can, 
and  the  state  takes  no  care  of  them  whatever. 

12.  Carving  is  an  important  acquisition  in  the  routine  of  daily  life, 
and  all  should  try  to  acquire  the  ability  to  do  it  well. 

13.  While  he  is  insane,  he  appears  harmless. 

14.  The  houses  were  mere  shanties,  and  rags  were  stuffed  in  the 
cracks  and  holes. 

15.  In  the  winter  we  live  in  the  city.  While  in  the  summer  we  go 
to  the  country. 

16.  They  opened  the  doors  for  him  to  enter,  and  in  a  moment  I 
heard  them  close  again  with  a  dull,  vibrating  sound,  and  then  all  became 
silent  once  more. 

17.  I  read  the  book  hurriedly,  the  latter  part  of  which  did  not 
interest  me  at  all. 

18.  The  road  was  macadamized  only  two  years  ago.  and  now  it  is 
full  of  holes. 

19.  Grouped  around  him  sat  the  fair  maidens,  and  below  in  the 
arena  all  was  ready  for  the  sport. 

20.  There  were  aircraft  of  all  descriptions  round  us,  and  I  enjoyed 
watching  them. 

21.  We  reached  home  at  nine  o'clock.  Saving  three  hours  by  mak- 
ing the  trip  in  an  automobile. 

22.  I  strongly  believe  that  domestic  science  should  be  taught  in 
every  high  school,  and  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  every  high 
school  will  offer  courses  in  it. 

23.  My  aunt  enjoys  playing  with  children,  but  she  is  very  old. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       195 

24.  He  moved  to  this  state  when  my  father  was  a  boy.  and  thcrr 
were  very  few  schools  in  the  country  then,  so  my  brothers  and  I  were 
sent  to  school  in  town,  but  conditions  have  now  improved. 

25.  My  uncle  left  home  when  I  was  three  years  old.  But  I  do  not 
remember  him. 

121.  Coherence.  A  second  essential  of  the  sentence  requires 
that  the  grammatical  construction  and  the  proper  relationship 
of  words  in  the  sentence  be  made  unmistakably  clear. 

I.  Coherence  is  violated  when  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause 
is  so  placed  that  it  appears  to  modify  the  wrong  word  in  the 
sentence. 

Such  words  as  nearly,  not,  and  only  should  be  carefully  placed 
with  respect  to  the  word  that  each  is  intended  to  modify.  Ob- 
serve the  changes  in  meaning  that  result  from  shifting  the 
position  of  these  words  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  caught  nearly  a  hundred  fish. 

2.  I  nearly  caught  a  hundred  fish. 

3.  All  men  are  not  criminals. 

4.  Not  all  men  are  criminals. 

5.  Only  I  saw  him  speak  to  her. 

6.  I  07ily  saw  him  speak  to  her. 

7.  I  saw  only  him  speak  to  her. 

8.  I  saw  him  otily  speak  to  her. 

9.  I  saw  him  speak  to  her  only. 

Coherence  is  sometimes  violated  by  the  careless  placing  of 
the  two  members  of  correlative  connectives,  such  as  both  .  .  . 
and,  either  ...  or,  neither  .  .  .  nor,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also, 
on  the  one  hand  .  .  .  on  the  other  hand.  The  correlatives  should 
be  placed  immediately  before  the  words  that  they  connect.  The 
words  connected  should  always  be  in  the  same  construction. 
The  sentences  that  follow  show  the  connectives  properly  placed : 

1.  I  not  only  saw  him  but  heard  him  also. 

2.  He  came  neither  by  train  nor  by  automobile. 


196  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Modifying  phrases  should  be  placed  next  to  the  words  that 
they  modify. 

I  sat  watching  the  men  play  golf  on  the  front  porch. 

Here  the  phrase  is  too  far  separated  from  the  word  it  modifies. 
Transpose  the  phrase,  and  the  sentence  becomes  coherent : 

I  sat  on  the  front  porch  watching  the  men  play  golf. 

A  relative  clause  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
word  that  it  modifies. 

He  carried  a  bag  of  peanuts  in  his  hat,  which  he  fed  to  the  elephants. 
The  sentence  slightly  rearranged  is  coherent : 

In  his  hat  he  carried  a  bag  of  peanuts,  which  he  fed  to  the  elephants. 

Sometimes  a  phrase  or  a  clause  is,  through  carelessness,  so 
placed  in  the  sentence  that  it  may  be  construed  with  what  has 
preceded  or  with  what  follows.  This  arrangement  is  called  the 
squinting  construction. 

1.  He  said  in  spite  of  protest  he  would  go. 

2.  Tell  my  friend,  if  she  is  at  home,  I  will  call  to  see  her. 

To  make  the  meaning  clear,  we  may  write  these  sentences  in 
either  of  the  following  versions : 

-.     f  In  spite  of  protest  he  said  he  would  go. 

\  He  said  he  would  go  in  spite  of  protest. 
2    r  If  my  friend  is  at  home,  tell  her  I  will  call  to  see  her. 
'  \  Tell  my  friend  I  will  call  to  see  her  if  she  is  at  home. 

Coherence  demands,  therefore,  that  all  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  word  or  words  which 
they  modify. 

2.  Coherence  is  often  violated  by  the  incorrect  reference  of 
participial  phrases,  verbal-noun  phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  and 
elliptical  clauses  (see  page  477  and  sections  159,  160,  and  161). 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       197 

A  participial  phrase,  a  verbal-noun  phrase,  an  infinitive 
phrase,  or  an  elliptical  clause  introducing  a  sentence  must  logi- 
cally refer  to  the  agent  of  the  action  expressed.  As  a  rule,  the 
word  denoting  the  agent  of  the  action  is  the  subject  of  the 
principal  verb.  The  reference  of  the  italicized  expression  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences  is  therefore  incorrect : 

Listening  intently,  a  noise  was  heard. 

Upon  entering  the  room,  no  one  was  seen. 

To  catch  the  ghost,  a  trap  was  devised. 

While  setting  the  trap,  the  door  opened  noiselessly. 

Each  sentence  becomes  coherent  when  the  word  denoting  the 
agent  of  the  action  is  made  the  subject  of  the  principal  verb. 

Listening  intently,  my  aunt  heard  a  noise. 

Upon  enteritig  the  room,  we  saw  no  one. 

To  catch  the  ghost,  she  devised  a  trap. 

While  setting  the  trap,  she  saw  the  door  open  noiselessly. 

Coherence  requires,  then,  that  each  participial  phrase,  verbal- 
noun  phrase,  infinitive  phrase,  or  elliptical  clause  be  made  to 
refer  logically  to  a  particular  and  definitely  expressed  antece- 
dent contained  in  the  sentence. 

3.  Coherence  is  frequently  violated  by  the  incorrect  refer- 
ence of  pronouns  (see  section  150). 

1.  I  may  go  to  the  lecture,  for  he  is  my  chum's  uncle. 

2.  We  went  trout-fishing,  but  caught  only  two  of  them. 

3.  He  struck  him  as  he  passed  him. 

4.  I  saw  a  bird  in  a  beautiful  cage,  which  I  bought. 

5.  Mrs.  Ward  told  Mrs.  Gray  that  her  children  were  playing  in  her 
flower  bed. 

In  the  first  two  sentences  the  pronouns  have  no  definite  ante- 
cedents expressed.  In  the  last  three  the  pronouns  may  refer 
to  two  antecedents,  and  for  this  reason  the  reference  is  ambigu- 


198  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ous.  All  five  sentences  may  be  made  coherent  by  some  such 
reconstruction  as  the  following : 

1.  I  may  go  to  the  lecture,  for  the  speaker  is  my  chum's  uncle. 

2.  We  went  trout-fishing,  but  caught  only  two  trout. 

3.  Mr.  Hoyt  struck  the  burglar  as  the  latter  passed  him. 

4.  In  a  beautiful  cage  I  saw  a  bird,  which  I  bought. 

5.  Mrs.  Ward  said  to  Mrs.  Gray,  "Your  children  are  playing  in  my 
flower  bed." 

Coherence  demands,  therefore,  that  every  pronoun  be  given  a 
particular  and  definitely  expressed  antecedent. 

4.  Coherence  is  violated  when  the  grammatical  construction 
is  changed  after  a  coordinate  conjunction.  To  secure  coherence, 
then,  see  that  the  construction  that  follows  a  coordinate  con- 
junction is  identical  with  the  construction  that  precedes  it. 

1.  This  is  a  good  book,  and  which  I  advise  you  to  read. 

2.  He  said  that  he  would  come  if  he  could,  but  not  to  look  for  him. 

In  the  first  sentence  and  connects  an  independent  clause  and 
a  dependent  clause.  In  the  second,  but  joins  a  dependent  clause 
and  an  infinitive  phrase.   Corrected,  the  sentences  read: 

.,    /  This  is  a  good  book,  and  I  advise  you  to  read  it. 

I  This  is  a  good  book,  which  I  advise  you  to  read. 
2.  He  said  that  he  would  come  if  he  could,  but  that  we  should  not 
look  for  him. 

The  coherence  of  a  sentence  is  better  if  the  same  voice  of  the 
main  verb  is  used  throughout  the  sentence. 

I  wrote  to  him,  but  my  letter  was  not  answered. 

The  sentence  may  be  improved  in  either  of  two  ways : 

1.  I  wrote  to  him,  but  he  did  not  answer  my  letter. 

2.  I  wrote  to  him,  but  I  received  no  answer  to  my  letter. 


MAN'S  CONQUEST  OVER  NATURE 
From  Caldwell  and  Eikenberry's  "Elements  of  General  Science" 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  COXSIDKRED       199 

The  coherence  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  improvefl  by 
arranginjj;  phrases  or  clauses  in  a  series  in  parallel  construction 
(see  section  173).  In  the  balanced  sentence  the  independent 
clauses  are  thus  arranged.  Phrases  or  dependent  clauses  may 
sometimes  be  advantageously  placed  in  parallel  construction. 
The  following  sentences  are  illustrations: 

1.  On  the  land,  on  the  sea,  in  the  air,  and  under  the  water  there 
were  engines  of  warfare. 

2.  A  man  who  provides  well  for  his  family,  who  maintains  ati  honest 
public  record,  and  who  contributes  freely  to  civic  improvement  is  an 
asset  in  any  community. 

Coherence  requires,  then,  that  the  construction  that  follows 
a  coordinate  conjunction  be  the  same  as  that  which  precedes  it. 

EXERCISES 


Correct  the  following  sentences  so  that  they  will  have  the  same 
construction  before  and  after  coordinate  conjunctions.  Notice  the 
voice  of  the  verbs. 

1.  It  was  some  time  before  he  could  get  into  the  regular  track  of  gos- 
sip, nor  could  the  strange  events  be  comprehended  by  him. 

2.  The  children  promised  to  be  careful  and  that  they  would  come 
home  early. 

3.  We  accepted  Carter's  promise  in  good  faith  and  believing  him  to 
be  honest. 

4.  Nora  is  a  well-trained,  industrious  maid,  and  who  rarely  asks  for 
an  afternoon  off. 

5.  There  were  never  more  mischievous  twins  than  Betty  and  Billy ; 
the  former  to  think  up  pranks,  and  they  both  carry  them  out. 

6.  I  got  your  letter  Thursday,  but  the  package  you  mentioned  has 
not  been  received. 

7.  Fred  is  energetic,  and  who  is  very  reliable. 

8.  We  attended  the  game,  but  not  expecting  that  our  team  would  be 
defeated. 


200  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

In  the  following  exercise  ( i )  point  out  the  error  in  each  sentence 
arid  (2)  correct  the  sentence  to  secure  coherence  of  thought  and 
of  form : 

1.  The  engines  became  overheated,  and  after  talking  the  matter 
over  they  decided  to  camp  where  they  were. 

2.  We  put  on  our  bathing-suits,  and  Helen,  which  is  my  cousin's 
name,  ran  down  to  the  water  first. 

3.  We  all  decided  that  the  race,  at  any  rate,  had  served  the  purpose. 

4.  Having  been  gone  for  six  days,  he  sent  out  a  man  to  look  for 
him,  but  he  could  not  find  hirn. 

5.  All  books  are  not  worth  reading. 

6.  Grandfather  is  very  active  for  his  years,  and  is  proud  of  it. 

7.  We  had  to  walk  back  to  the  farmhouse,  drenched  with  rain, 
which  was  nearly  half  a  mile  away. 

8.  Two  persons  were  only  saved  by  sliding  down  a  conductor  pipe. 

9.  Having  shown  him  his  bedroom,  he  retired. 

10.  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed. 

11.  Glancing  out  of  the  window  of  my  study,  an  unusual  sight 
attracted  my  attention. 

12.  Saturday  all  of  us  went  nutting,  but  we  found  only  about  a  peck 
of  them. 

13.  Being  the  youngest  child,  mother  hated  to  see  me  leave  home. 

14.  My  watch  is  either  fast  or  your  clock  is  slow. 

15.  You  look  as  if  you  were  frightened  in  that  picture. 

16.  He  told  us  to  get  his  football  suit,  and  that  he  should  not  be 
home  till  evening. 

17.  Uncle  David  telephoned  Mr.  Joyce  that  his  sheep  were  in  his 
pasture. 

18.  Passengers  are  warned  not  to  alight  from  the  car  while  moving. 

19.  When  nine  years  old,  my  grandmother  came  to  live  with  us. 

20.  Orville  nearly  made  a  hundred  dollars  last  summer. 

21.  I  promised  her,  when  leaving,  I  would  tell  her. 

22.  He  showed  us  pictures  of  the  menagerie  in  the  auditorium. 

23.  Being  in  a  cage,  I  did  not  feel  afraid  of  the  lion. 

24.  Some  women  have  a  habit  of  powdering  their  noses,  no  matter 
v/here  they  are,  and  seeming  to  enjoy  it. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       201 

122.  Emphasis.  Emphasis,  the  third  essential  of  the  sen- 
tence, requires  an  arrangement  of  words  that  brings  into  promi- 
nence the  central  idea  and  subordinates  the  minor  details. 

I.  Ideas  placed  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a  sentence 
receive  the  greatest  emphasis. 

Many  a  man  has  sacrificed  his  life  for  wealth,  it  is  true. 

As  the  sentence  now  stands,  the  end  is  weak.  Rearrangement 
improves  the  emphasis: 

Many  a  man  has  sacrificed  his  life,  it  is  true,  for  wealth. 
Many  a  man,  it  is  true,  has  sacrificed  his  life  for  wealth. 

By  placing  the  unimportant  clause  "it  is  true''  in  an  unem- 
phatic  position  we  may  improve  the  force  of  the  sentence. 

Words  placed  out  of  their  natural  order  in  a  sentence  become 
more  emphatic.  Note  the  improvement  effected,  in  the  sen- 
tence given  above,  by  transposing  the  phrase  for  wealth  to  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence : 

For  wealth  many  a  man,  it  is  true,  has  sacrificed  his  life. 

The  sentence  now  has  proper  emphasis. 

The  following  sentences  are  examples  of  emphasis  thus 
secured : 

1.  Back  surged  the  crowd. 

2.  By  the  fire  he  sat  all  the  morning. 

3.  Last  of  all  marched  the  clown. 

4.  ''Fire!"  he  shouted. 

5.  Great  is  the  influence  of  money. 

6.  To  him  belongs  the  credit  for  my  rescue. 

Transposing  words  and  phrases  out  of  their  natural  order  and 
inverting  the  entire  sentence  are  both  useful  devices  for  obtain- 
ing emphasis. 


202  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

A  periodic  sentence  is,  by  its  very  nature,  more  emphatic 
than  a  loose  sentence.  Compare  the  two  versions  of  the  follow- 
ing sentence: 

A  mysterious  silence  reigned  about  the  old  ruin.    (Loose) 
About  the  old  ruin  a  mysterious  silence  reigned.    (Periodic) 

Such  a  periodic  sentence  as  this  may  frequently  be  rendered 
even  more  emphatic  by  inversion : 

About  the  old  ruin  reigned  a  mysterious  silence. 

2.  Ideas  are  often  made  emphatic  by  contrast  or  antithesis. 

1.  Worth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

2.  Man  is  finite ;  God  is  infinite. 

3.  Education  may  be  acquired  ;   culture  is  innate. 

4.  The  spirit  is  willing,  but  the  flesh  is  weak. 

5.  I  judge  by  actions,  not  mere  words. 

In  such  expressions  of  contrast  the  balanced  sentence  is  effective. 

3,  Emphasis  may  be  gained  by  the  use  of  climax.  That  is, 
coordinate  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  their  increasing  importance. 

Friends,  life  itself,  reputation,  social  position,  had  no  longer  any 
attraction  for  him. 

In  this  sentence  the  ideas  are  not  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
importance.  The  sentence  should  read : 

Social  position,  friends,  reputation,  life  itself,  had  no  longer  any 
attraction  for  him. 

4.  Emphasis,  as  well  as  unity  (see  section  120,  rule  3),  may 
be  secured  by  putting  subordinate  thoughts  in  dependent  clauses. 
This  leaves  the  independent  clause  for  the  main  thought. 

1.  My  train  was  late,  and  I  missed  my  class. 

2.  When  Watt  observed  the  power  of  steam,  he  was  helping  his 
wife  prepare  breakfast. 


SENTENXE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       203 

Proper  subordination  renders  both  of  these  sentences  emphatic : 

1.  Because  my  train  was  late,  I  missed  my  class. 

2.  While  helping  his  wife  prepare  breakfast,  Watt  observed  the 
power  of  steam. 

5.  Emphasis  is  enhanced  by  economy  in  words.  If  words  do 
not  add  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence,  they  make  it  less  effective 
and  should  be  omitted. 

1.  All  was  darkness,  and  not  a  ray  of  light  could  be  seen. 

2.  He  had  asked  him  once,  and  he  refused  to  repeat  the  question  again. 

The  first  sentence  is  an  example  of  tautology,  or  repetition  of 
the  thought;  the  second  is  an  example  of  redundancy,  or  the 
use  of  words  not  necessary  to  the  sense.  The  following  sen- 
tences are  more  emphatic : 

1.  All  was  darkness. 

2.  He  refused  to  repeat  the  question. 

6.  Sentences  in  the  active  voice  are  more  emphatic  than  those 
in  the  passive. 

Your  invitation  was  received  by  me. 

This  sentence  is  much  less  forceful  than  the  active  version : 
I  received  your  invitation. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  show  in  what  respect  each  sentence  is 
lacking  in  emphasis,  and  improve  the  emphasis  by  reconstructing 
the  sentence : 

1.  In  this  remote  and  secluded  town  she  lived  apart  and  unknown 
for  some  time. 

2.  A  man  was  killed  by  an  automobile  while  crossing  the  street  yes- 
terday. 

3.  He  saw  before  him  ruin,  defeat,  disaster,  and  broken  health. 


204  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Summer  is  warm,  but  extremely  pleasant ;  while  winter  brings 
dark,  gloomy  days  and  bitter  cold. 

5.  While  the  storm  was  raging,  a  tree  was  struck  by  a  flash  of 
lightning,  which  was  the  only  flash  seen  during  the  storm,  and  which 
looked  like  a  ball  of  fire. 

6.  The  book  was  expensive,  so  I  could  not  buy  it. 

7.  He  seems  to  enjoy  the  universal  esteem  of  all  men. 

8.  King  Arthur  knew  that  he  was  dying  and  called  his  last  true 
knight,  Sir  Bedivere,  to  him. 

9.  Modred,  the  treacherous  knight,  had  been  planning  to  capture 
King  Arthur's  kingdom  for  some  time. 

10.  The  next  day  King  Arthur  told  how  he  had  seen  flames  playing 
about  the  castle  walls  the  previous  evening. 

11.  On  account  of  her  great  work  among  the  poor,  Guinevere  was 
made  abbess  at  the  death  of  her  predecessor. 

12.  It  is  a  great  privilege  to  assemble  and  meet  together. 

13.  While  the  thief  looted  the  house,  the  family  slept. 

14.  The  gate  is  wide  and  the  way  is  broad  that  leads  to  destruction. 

15.  Insects,  men,  beasts,  all  are  creatures  of  God's  hand. 

16.  It  was  once  believed  that  men  reach  their  decisions  by  rea- 
soning and  that  decisions  are  made  by  women  through  intuition. 

17.  We  returned  back  home  weary  and  exhausted. 

18.  Some  people  seem  to  think  that  civilization  is  a  curse,  which  is 
not  true  at  all. 

19.  He  gazed  longingly  at  the  fruit. 

20.  Two  of  Mrs.  Judson's  friends  arrived  unexpectedly,  and  I  knew 
she  did  not  have  room  for  all  of  us,  so  I  made  preparations  to  come 
home,  but  she  would  not  let  me. 

21.  Be  that  as  it  may,  you  should  have  refused  to  remain,  since  you 
knew  what  inconvenience  you  were  causing. 

22.  A  preposition  is  an  unemphatic  word  to  end  a  sentence  with. 

23.  She  is  a  poor  widow  woman  without  any  money  or  property. 

24.  I  was  assured  by  the  manager  that  the  seats  had  been  reserved, 

123.  Euphony.  The  fourth  essential  of  the  sentence  is 
euphony.  A  sentence  should  be  constructed  with  due  regard  to 
its  pleasing  effect  on  the  ear,  though  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  sacrifice  sense  to  sound. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       205 

I.  Euphony  is  secured  by  the  rhythmical  phrasint;;  of  the 
sentence.  That  is,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  so 
skillfully  arranj^ed  that  the  harmonious  flow  of  sounds  adds 
to  our  enjoyment  of  the  sentence.  Oral  reading  in  standard 
prose  and  observant  practice  in  phrasing  our  own  thoughts  will 
help  us  to  cultivate  a  sense  of  rhythm.  The  following  passages 
illustrate  harmonious  phrasing: 

1.  During  the  whole  of  a  dark,  dull,  and  soundless  day  in  the 
autumn  of  the  year,  when  the  clouds  hung  oppressively  low  in  the 
heavens,  I  had  been  passing  alone,  on  horseback,  through  a  singu- 
larly dreary  tract  of  country ;  and  at  length  found  myself,  as  the 
shades  of  the  evening  drew  on,  within  view  of  the  melancholy  House 
of  Usher.— PoE,  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher" 

2.  O  toiling  hands  of  mortals!  O  unwearied  feet,  traveling  ye 
know  not  whither!  Soon,  soon,  it  seems  to  you,  you  must  come 
forth  on  some  conspicuous  hilltop,  and  but  a  little  way  further, 
against  the  setting  sun,  descry  the  spires  of  El  Dorado.  Little  do 
ye  know  your  own  blessedness ;  for  to  travel  hopefully  is  a  better 
thing  than  to  arrive,  and  the  true  success  is  to  labor. — Stevenson, 
"El  Dorado"^ 

2.  The  euphony  of  a  sentence  is  improved  by  avoiding  the 
careless  repetition  of  a  word  at  brief  intervals.  Compare  the 
two  sentences  given  below,  and  note  the  improvement  in 
the  second  sentence : 

1.  He  ordered  the  captain  to  order  the  soldiers  to  preserve  good  order. 

2.  He  directed  the  captain  to  see  that  the  soldiers  preserved  good 
order. 

The  study  of  reputable  English  authors  shows,  however,  that 
skillful  repetition  may  be  employed  to  good  effect. 

The  poet  is  a  heroic  figure,  belonging  to  all  ages  ;  whom  all  ages 
possess,  when  once  he  is  produced ;  whom  the  newest  age  as  the  oldest 
may  produce,  and  will  produce,  always  when  Nature  pleases. 

^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


2o6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  The  euphony  of  a  sentence  is  enhanced  by  avoiding  the 
repetition  of  like  sounds. 

I  cannot  understand  how  a  man  of  his  standing  can  take  such  a 
stand  on  this  matter. 

A  little  care  in  the  choice  of  words  overcomes  this  monotony. 

I  cannot  understand  how  a  person  of  his  reputation  can  hold  such 
views  on  this  matter. 

Rime  in  prose  should  always  be  avoided.  Compare  these  two 
sentences : 

1.  He  was  suffering,  he  said,  from  a  cold  in  his  head. 

2.  He  was  suffering,  he  told  me,  from  a  cold  in  his  head. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  ( i )  point  out  the  error  in  each  sentence 
and  (2)  correct  the  sentence  to  improve  the  euphony : 

1.  Did  you  ever  see  such  a  series  of  sibilant  sounds  ! 

2.  In  India  innocent  infants  are  thrown  into  the  Ganges. 

3.  Billy  ran  away,  but  he  could  not  stay. 

4.  One  cannot  imagine  what  a  monotonous  being  one  becomes  if 
one  is  forced  to  associate  constantly  with  oneself. 

5.  She  said, — loudly  enough  for  those  near  to  hear,  I  fear, — "What 
a  fright ! " 

6.  Looking  up,  Tom  Sawyer  saw  a  stranger  approaching  of  strange 
appearance.    "Good  morning,"  said  the  stranger. 

7.  It  seemed  to  us  that  we  had  never  seen  such  scenes  before. 

8.  Next  day,  in  walked  John  Ray  to  say  he  v/ould  pay  us  on  the  first 
of  May. 

9.  I  am  glad  the  dog  was  not  mad. 

10.  The  annual  agricultural  exhibit  will  have  special  interest  this 
year,  especially  for  farmers. 

11.  The  superfluity  and  profusion  of  his  allusions  is  confusing. 

12.  To  fly  through  the  sky  at  night  is  my  delight. 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       207 

13.  I  will  sign  the  petition  on  one  condition. 

14.  The  civilization  of  every  nation  depends  on  education. 

15.  The  moment  the  movement  is  mastered,  the  fingers  take  care 
of  the  rest. 

REVIEW  EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  (i)  point  out  all  errors  and  (2)  correct 
the  sentences  according  to  the  rules  and  principles  already  stated 
in  this  chapter : 

1.  Hated  and  persecuted  by  the  people  of  his  time,  we  cannot  help 
sympathizing  with  Shylock. 

2.  While  waiting  in   the  court,   a   noble   maiden   named   Lynette 
entered  and  asked  the  king  to  give  her  Sir  Lancelot. 

3.  Mr.  Scott  shot  a  burglar  as  he  was  entering  his  house. 

4.  You  may  either  spend  the  summer  at  Colorado  Springs  or  Los 
Angeles. 

5.  Although  blessed  with  a  loving  wife,  she  was  too  ambitious  for 
the  advancement  of  her  husband. 

6.  He  was  kind  to  his  family  where  some  fathers  were  not. 

7.  One  day  when  camping  it  had  been  threatening  rain. 

8.  We  occasionally  saw  a  straw  hat  here  and  there. 

9.  Addison  was  always  remarkable  for  his  wit  and  humor,  but  he 
never  returned  an  insult. 

10.  The  boat  pushed  off  to  the  shore,  but  speedily  returned  with  a 
dying  man,  who,  they  affirmed,  had  been  mortally  wounded  from  a 
blow  which  had  been  received  from  a  piece  of  wood,  which  they  had 
placed  in  the  boat. 

11.  In  spite  of  Dr.  Johnson's  rude,  rough  ways,  and  although  he 
ate  like  a  pig,  he  had  many  friends. 

12.  The  old  veteran  was  delighted  by  a  visit  from  his  two  twin 
granddaughters. 

13.  Soon  the  sky  grew  dark  and  then  darker  ;  then  the  thunder  began, 
and  soon  came  the  rain,  and  all  nature  was  refreshed,  but  we  were 
more  than  refreshed,  as  we  could  find  no  shelter. 

14.  He  is  a  man  of  truth  and  veracity. 

15.  Brother  and  I  feared  that  mother  would  never  recover  her 
health  again. 

16.  Tell  me  whom  you  saw  and  the  gossip  you  heard. 


208  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

17.  When  we  came  along  the  road,  we  came  to  a  field  where  a 
pleasant-faced  peasant  was  making  hay. 

18.  The  leaves  of  plants  radiate  the  heat  which  comes  to  them  from 
the  sun  with  great  rapidity. 

19.  They  urged  me  to  go  and  that  I  should  not  worry  about  their 
safety. 

20.  We  neither  know  him  nor  his  family. 

21.  Do  you  suppose  she  would  accept  this  rose? 

22.  Our  team  won  the  meet,  but  it  was  a  great  surprise  to  every- 
body. 

23.  When  I  found  the  fountain  pen,  I  was  walking  along  the  street. 

24.  Snow  was  falling  out  of  doors ;  within,  warmth  and  cheer  pre- 
vailed. 

25.  Being  a  stranger,  the  bank  refused  to  pay  him  the  money. 

26.  No  one  had  heard  from  him  since  he  left,  which  seemed  strange. 

27.  Billy  had  a  dollar  in  his  bank  and  lost  it. 

28.  It  is  true,  I  suppose,  that  he  stole  the  money,  anyway. 

29.  There  were  two  brothers  and  their  sister  walking  through  a  wood, 
and  in  some  way  the  sister  became  separated  from  her  brothers  and 
met  a  man  who  offered  to  show  her  the  way. 

30.  Drinking  this,  Comus  can  have  no  power  over  them. 

31.  One  day  Modred  was  in  the  garden,  and  there  he  saw  Guinevere 
and  Lancelot.  However,  Lancelot  saw  him  and  he  soon  beat  a  hasty 
retreat. 

32.  His  estimate,  then,  is  that  the  industrious  and  skilled  in  all  trades 
are  better  off  or  in  improved  circumstances  to  an  extent  that  should 
be  admitted,  as  most  decided  and  perceptible,  over  their  condition  and 
circumstances  ten  years  ago. 

33.  When  morning  came,  he  felt  the  same. 

34.  I  not  only  wasted  a  considerable  amount  of  time,  but  money  also. 

35.  Aunt  Helen  saw  me  coming  home  in  the  mirror. 

36.  Having  landed  in  New  York,  Mrs.  Nelson  went  to  meet  her 
husband. 

37.  Mr.  Nelson  is  a  lawyer,  and  who  has  been  very  successful  in 
his  practice. 

38.  We  feared  in  the  morning  it  would  rain. 

39.  As  a  clerk,  Sims  was  honest,  accurate,  prompt,  and  neat. 

40.  Mother  wrote  Aunt  Eleanor  that  Marion  was  going  to  visit  her. 

41.  The  very  things  which  I  needed  for  the  journey  which  I  was 


SENTENCE  RHETORICALLY  CONSIDERED       209 

going  to  make  with  my  friends  were  not  to  be  procured  in  the  little 
village  which  was  then  my  home. 

42.  They  were  advised  to  take  a  lunch  with  them,  which  they  did. 

43.  A  trout  can  catch  a  minnow  while  it  is  swimming. 

44.  I  slept  till  eight  o'clock  and  I  tried  to  get  some  breakfast,  and 
so  I  was  late  at  class. 

45.  The  physician  came,  relieving  the  patient  as  soon  as  he  arrived. 

46.  Tom  told  Bob  that  his  answer  to  the  problem  was  wrong. 

47.  Many  persons  can  only  speak  one  language. 

48.  Our  town  is  very  progressive,  and  they  keep  the  streets  in  good 
condition. 

49.  I  will  not  promise,  even  if  you  insist. 

50.  Very  bad  roads  were  encountered,  thus  causing  the  tourists  to 
be  a  day  behind  their  schedule. 

124.  Summary.  Rhetorically  considered,  sentences  are  loose, 
periodic,  and  balanced,  according  to  their  construction. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  that  may  be  brought  to  a  grammatical 
close  before  the  end  is  reached. 

A  periodic  sentence  is  one  that  is  not  grammatically  com- 
plete until  the  end  is  reached. 

A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts  are  alike,  in 
that  they  are  constructed  according  to  the  same  pattern. 

The  essentials  of  a  good  sentence  are  unity,  coherence,  em- 
phasis, and  euphony. 

Sentence  unity  is  violated  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  By  putting  too  much  in  the  sentence. 

2.  By  putting  too  little  in  the  sentence. 

3.  By  failure  to  indicate  correctly  the  relationship  between 
the  parts  of  the  sentence. 

4.  By  change  of  the  point  of  view. 

Sentence  coherence  is  violated  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  placing  a  w'ord,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  so  that  it  appears 
to  modify  the  wrong  word  in  the  sentence. 

2.  By  incorrect  reference  of  verbal  phrases. 


210  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  By  incorrect  reference  of  pronouns. 

4.  By  change  in  grammatical  construction  after  a  coordinate 
conjunction. 

Sentence  emphasis  is  secured  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  placing  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  sentence 
the  words  that  are  to  receive  the  greatest  emphasis, 

2.  By  the  use  of  contrast. 

3.  By  the  use  of  cHmax. 

4.  By  putting  subordinate  thoughts  in  dependent  clauses. 

5.  By  strict  economy  in  words. 

6.  By  the  use  of  the  active  voice. 

Sentence  euphony  is  improved  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  rhythmical  phrasing. 

2.  By  avoiding  the  careless  repetition  of  words. 

3.  By  avoiding  the  repetition  of  like  sounds  introduced  at 
brief  intervals. 


CHAPTER  X 

PUNCTUATION 

125.  Value  of  punctuation.  In  all  our  speech  we  depend  upon 
the  modulation  and  inflection  of  the  voice  to  help  others  in 
correctly  interpreting  our  utterances.  In  writing  we  attempt, 
by  means  of  certain  arbitrary  signs  called  marks  of  punctua- 
tion, to  aid  the  reader  in  the  accurate  interpretation  of  our 
thoughts.  The  chief  value  of  punctuation  is  to  indicate  the 
structure  of  a  sentence  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  read. 

126.  Requirements  of  accurate  punctuation.  For  our  guid- 
ance the  usage  of  a  majority  of  the  best  writers  regarding 
punctuation  may  be  stated  as  more  or  less  definite  rules.  We 
should  understand  at  the  very  beginning,  however,  that  punc- 
tuation is  a  means,  not  an  end  in  itself.  We  employ  marks  of 
punctuation  to  render  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  definite  and 
clear;  we  do  not  write  sentences  (except  in  exercises  in  punc- 
tuation) to  illustrate  the  use  of  these  marks.  Furthermore, 
neither  the  mere  memorizing  of  the  rules  of  punctuation  nor 
the  haphazard  insertion  of  marks  of  punctuation  at  points  in 
the  sentence  where  we  "feel"  that  they  are  needed  will  enable 
us  to  punctuate  accurately.  Remember  that  punctuation  incor- 
rectly used  misleads,  rather  than  guides,  the  reader  in  the  proper 
interpretation  of  a  sentence. 

The  intelligent  punctuation  of  a  sentence  is  based  upon  three 
fundamental  requirements  :  {i)an  exact  understanding  of  what 
we  wish  to  say ;  (2)  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  grammatical 
structure  of  the  sentence;  and  (j)  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
rules  of  punctuation. 


212  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

127.  General  directions  for  punctuation,  i.  After  you  have 
studied  the  rules  of  punctuation  and  the  illustrations  of  their 
use,  memorize  the  rules  accurately. 

2.  Observe  the  punctuation  used  by  the  best  modern  writers. 
Pause  here  and  there  in  your  reading  to  see  if  you  can  explain 
all  the  punctuation  used  in  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph. 

3.  Punctuate  each  sentence  as  you  write  it. 

4.  In  all  your  writing  make  accurate  punctuation  a  habit. 

5.  Marks  of  punctuation  should  not  be  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  line,  but  at  the  end  of  the  line  preceding.  The  only 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  dash,  the  parenthesis,  the  bracket, 
and  the  quotation  mark. 

6.  Do  not  punctuate  unnecessarily.  Have  a  definite  reason 
for  every  mark  of  punctuation  that  you  use. 

128.  The  comma.  In  general,  the  comma  shows  a  slight  pause 
in  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  or  the  omission  of  words,  or  the 
addition  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  complete  expression  of  the  thought.  The  following 
rules  governing  the  use  of  the  comma  should  be  intelligently 
applied : 

I.  Direct  address.  A  comma  or  commas  should  be  used  to 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  words  in  direct  address. 

1.  Helen,  have  you  heard  the  latest  news? 

2.  Please  tell  me  one  more  story,  Uncle  John. 

3.  That  one  stamp,  my  friend,  cost  me  a  small  fortune. 

Note.  The  salutation  introducing  a  formal  address  or  preceding  a 
formal  letter  should  be  followed  by  a  colon  (see  section  130,  rule  3). 

2.  Appositive  expressions.  A  comma  or  commas  should  be 
used  to  separate  appositive  words  and  phrases  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence,  unless  the  relation  is  restrictive. 

1.  Governor  Warrington,  the  principal  speaker,  delivered  a  memo- 
rable address. 


PUNCTUATION  213 

2.  Salt,  or  sodium  chloride,  is  an  essential  commodity. 

3.  My  friend  Mr.  Walsh  has  resigned  his  position. 

Note  i.  An  appositive  recognized  as  a  part  of  a  name  should  not  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  name. 

William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold  the  Saxon  at  the  battle  of  Hastings 
in  1066. 

Note  2.  An  appositive  word,  phrase,  or  clause  that  is  referred  to 
merely  as  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  should  not  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or  commas. 

1.  The  word  salary  has  an  interesting;  history. 

2.  The  phrase  far  jrom  the  madding  croud  is  the  title  of  one  of  Thomas 
Hardy's  novels. 

3.  The  e.xpression  take  it  from  me  is  ordinarily  used  as  slang. 

3.  Words,  phrases,  or  clauses  in  a  series.  If  in  a  series  of 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses  the  conjunctions  are  omitted  except 
between  the  last  two.  each  member  of  the  series  except  the  last 
should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

1.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  wrote  essays,  novels,  short  stories,  verses, 
and  dramas. 

2.  Delegates  to  the  convention  are  arriving  by  boat,  by  train,  by 
automobile,  and  by  aeroplane. 

3.  The  whole  town  wondered  why  he  had  come,  what  he  would  do, 
and  when  he  would  return  to  Washington. 

Note  i.  In  a  series  of  adjectives  modifying  the  same  noun  coordi- 
nately,  each  adjective  except  the  last  should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

Grandmother  gave  me  a  quaint,  old-fashioned,  inlaid  chest. 

Note  2.  A  comma  is  used  to  separate  pairs  of  words  or  phrases 
used  in  a  series. 

Winter  or  summer,  day  or  night,  cold  or  hot,  wet  or  dry,  he  always  carries 
his  umbrella  and  overcoat. 

4.  Introductory  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  An  introductory 
participial  phrase  or  an  introductory  clause  (unless  very  short 
and  closely  connected  with  the  following  clause)  should  be 


214  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma.  An  intro- 
ductory word  or  a  prepositional  phrase  may  be  followed  by  a 
comma  if  clearness  demands  its  use. 

1.  Having  arrived  ahead  of  time,  we  waited  for  our  friends. 

2.  Wearied  by  his  Hfe  in  London,  Soames  went  to  live  in  Italy. 

3.  The  game  having  ended,  we  returned  home. 

4.  When  the  whistle  sounded,  the  game  began. 

5.  Though  he  has  enjoyed  exceptional  opportunities,  he  has  made 
very  little  use  of  them. 

6.  What  motive  she  could  have  had  for  acting  in  this  way,  no  one 
could  guess. 

7.  Now,  what  does  he  know  about  chemical  engineering? 

8.  In  the  presence  of  Claudia,  Bryson  always  lost  his  power  of  speech. 

Note.  Yes  and  no  and  such  words  as  indeed,  still,  fortunately,  and 
similar  words,  when  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  or  a  clause,  should 
always  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

1.  Yes,  the  game  Saturday  will  be  a  hard  fight. 

2.  Indeed,  he  is  an  admirable  old  character. 

5.  Parenthetical  expressions.  Commas  should  be  used  to 
set  off  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  interrupt  the  thought  or 
the  grammatical  order  of  a  sentence.  Some  of  the  more  com- 
mon parenthetical  expressions  are  moreover,  however,  further- 
more, in  fact,  for  example,  for  instance,  of  course,  no  doubt,  in 
short,  it  is  true,  I  suppose,  it  is  said. 

1.  I  am  greatly  surprised,  moreover,  that  my  letter  did  not  reach  you 
before  you  left. 

2.  Consider,  for  instance,  this  aspect  of  the  question. 

3.  Yours  is  a  legitimate,  though  somewhat  unusual,  excuse. 

4.  The  day,  cold  as  it  was,  proved  ideal  for  the  game. 

5.  Old  Jasper,  you  may  be  sure,  knows  where  the  key  is  kept. 

6.  N onrestrictive  phrases  and  clauses.  A  comma  or  commas 
should  be  used  to  set  off  a  nonrestrictive  phrase  or  clause  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence.   A  phrase  or  a  clause  which,  though 


PUNCTUATION  215 

loosely  a  modifier  of  some  word,  may  l)e  left  out  without  affecting 
the  meaning  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  called  nonrcstrictive. 

1.  His  father,  wearied  by  the  long  journey,  lay  down  to  rest. 

2.  In  a  few  words  our  principal  introduced  Dr.  Allison,  who  rose 
and  addressed  the  student  body. 

3.  My  chum  lent  me  his  copy  of  'The  Life  of  Theodore  Roosevelt," 
which  I  read  during  the  holidays. 

Note.  A  restrictive  phrase  or  clause  should  not  be  set  off  by  a 
comma  or  commas,  for  such  a  phrase  or  clause  is  essential  to  the 
meaning  of  the  sentence  and  therefore  cannot  be  omitted. 

1.  The  house  standing  on  the  hill  is  my  home. 

2.  He  who  will  not  work  shall  not  eat. 

3.  The  book  that  I  am  reading  is  a  novel. 

7.  Coordinate  clauses  connected  by  a  simple  conjunction. 
A  comma  should  be  used  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence,  provided  the  clauses  are  connected  by  one  of  the 
simple  conjunctions  {and,  but,  or,  nor,  for),  are  reasonably 
short,  and  are  not  internally  punctuated  with  commas ;  other- 
wise a  semicolon  should  be  used  (see  section  129,  rule  i). 

1.  We  inquired  for  Laider  at  the  old  inn,  but  no  one  had  ever  heard 
of  a  person  by  that  name. 

2.  We  had  never  before  experienced  such  wonderful  climate,  and  we 
were  delighted  by  the  unusual  scenery. 

Note  i.  Coordinate  dependent  clauses  connected  by  a  simple  con- 
junction, if  they  are  not  closely  connected  in  thought,  should  also  be 
separated  by  a  comma. 

Major  Aldington,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  World  War,  and  who 
has  been  reelected  mayor  of  our  city,  has  gone  to  Washington  on  business. 

Note  2.  If  the  coordinate  clauses  are  very  short  and  are  closely 
related  in  thought,  the  comma  is  often  omitted. 

1.  The  lightning  flashed  and  the  thunder  roared. 

2.  When  I  saw  him  again  and  when  he  smiled,  I  forgave  him. 


2i6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Note  3.  Coordinate  clauses  joined  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  should 
be  separated  by  a  semicolon  (see  section  129,  rule  i,  Note  i). 

Note  4.  A  comma  may  be  used  to  separate  coordinate  clauses  that 
are  not  joined  by  a  conjunction,  provided  the  clauses  are  short,  are  not 
internally  punctuated  with  commas,  and  are  closely  related  ifi  thought ; 
otherwise  a  semicolon  should  be  used  (see  section  129,  rule  i). 

1 .  He  ate  no  flesh,  he  drank  no  wine,  he  never  knew  the  use  of  tobacco. 

2.  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

3.  What  she  said,  what  she  thought,  what  she  wore,  made  a  lasting  impres- 
sion on  the  httle  company. 

Note  5.  Rule  3,  above,  applies  to  the  punctuation  of  coordinate 
clauses  in  a  series  in  which  the  conjunction  is  expressed  between  the 
last  two  clauses  only. 

1,  We  found  the  key,  I  unlocked  the  chest,  and  together  we  opened  it. 

2.  Tell  me  what  you  wore,  whom  you  saw,  and  what  each  said. 

Caution.  Do  not  use  a  comma  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence  not  connected  by  a  conjunction  unless  the 
clauses  are  very  short,  are  not  internally  punctuated  with  com- 
mas, and  are  closely  related  in  thought.  Usually  the  semicolon 
is  the  better  punctuation  between  coordinate  clauses  not  joined 
by  a  conjunction.  The  use  of  a  comma  for  a  semicolon  or  for  a 
mark  of  end  punctuation  is  called  the  comma  fault.  This  is  a 
serious  error  in  sentence  construction  and  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  (See  section  171.) 

8.  Direct  and  indirect  quotations.  A  comma  or  commas 
should  be  used  to  separate  a  direct  quotation  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence,  unless  some  other  mark  of  punctuation  is  re- 
quired. Observe  carefully  the  following  models : 

1.  "I  am  glad  to  see  you,"  she  said. 

2.  She  said,  "I  am  glad  to  see  you." 

3.  "I  am  glad,"  she  said,  "to  see  you." 

4.  "When  did  you  come?  "  she  asked. 

5.  She  asked,  "When  did  you  come?" 

6.  "When,"  she  asked,  "did  you  come?" 


PUNCTUATION  2 1 7 

Note  i.  Notice  in  sentence  4  that  no  comma  is  used  after  the  ques- 
tion mark. 

Note  2.  If  the  verb  of  saying  and  its  subject  precede  a  direct  quota- 
tion of  more  than  one  sentence,  a  colon  is  used  instead  of  a  comma 
(see  section  130,  rule  i). 

Note  3.  No  comma  or  commas  should  be  used  if  the  direct  quotation 
is  closely  incorporated  in  the  sentence  and  is  not  preceded  or  followed 
by  a  verb  of  saying. 

The  banquet  hall  ranj?  with  derisive  cries  of  "Toss  him  in  a  blanket," 
"Throw  him  down  the  fire  escape." 

Note  4.  No  comma  should  be  used  before  an  indirect  quotation. 

1.  She  said  that  she  was  glad  to  see  me. 

2.  She  asked  me  when  I  had  come. 

9.  Omission  of  important  words.  A  comma  should  be  used 
to  indicate  the  omission  of  important  words  that  are  clearly 
implied. 

1.  The  doctor  came  in  his  automobile ;  the  policeman,  in  a  motor  boat. 

2.  Grandfather's  boyhood  was  spent  in  the  country  ;  father's,  in  the 
city. 

TO.  Limiting  or  identifying  words  or  figures.  A  word  or  a 
group  of  figures  used  to  limit  or  identify  a  preceding  word  or 
expression  should  be  separated  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas, 
from  other  expressions.  This  rule  includes  the  setting-off  of 
(i)  a  second  geographical  name,  (2)  a  title  following  a  proper 
name,  and  (3)  portions  of  dates,  as  illustrated  in  the  examples 
below : 

1.  Portland,  Maine,  and  Portland,  Oregon,  are  both  interesting  cities. 

2.  Norman  Faraday.  Jr. 

3.  Thornton  Wakefield,  Esq. 

4.  Denby  and  Pearson,  Architects. 

5.  November  11,  10 18,  is  a  memorable  date. 

6.  We  shall  arrive  Wednesday.  October  17. 

7.  The  letter  was  written  New  Year's  Day,  1922. 

8.  At  the  top  of  the  page  was  the  date  ''23  August,  1921." 


2i8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

11.  Mild  interjections.  After  a  mild  interjection  a  comma  is 
usually  preferable  to  an  exclamation  point. 

1.  Oh,  that  makes  no  difference. 

2.  But  alas,  it  does  make  a  difference. 

3.  Why,  when  did  you  arrive  ? 

4.  Well,  I  wish  you  would  listen ! 

12.  Punctuation  for  greater  clearness.  In  order  to  insure 
the  immediate  proper  reading  of  a  sentence,  a  comma  is  some- 
times used  where  no  mark  of  punctuation  would  otherwise  be 
considered  necessary. 

1.  Ever  since,  we  have  been  coming  to  this  place  for  the  summer 
months. 

2.  What  his  reason  for  making  such  a  will  had  been,  had  been  ex- 
plained by  his  lawyer. 

3.  Such  an  act  as  that  at  a  time  when  every  man  who  had  an  ounce 
of  patriotism  in  him  was  bending  every  energy  to  win  the  war,  was 
unpardonable. 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  punctuate  the  sentence  correctly,  giving  the  rule 
governing  the  use  of  each  comma : 

1.  The  man  who  proved  to  be  an  escaped  convict  had  in  his  pos- 
session one  of  the  missing  papers. 

2.  Consequently  if  a  person  cannot  be  happy  without  remaining  idle 
idle  he  should  remain. 

3.  Extreme  busyness  whether  at  school  or  college  kirk  or  market 
is  a  symptom  of  deficient  vitality. 

4.  Hope  they  say  deserts  us  at  no  period  of  our  existence. 

5.  Considered  not  as  verse  but  as  speech  a  great  part  of  his  poetry 
is  full  of  strange  and  admirable  merits. 

6.  When  they  told  Joan  of  Arc  she  should  be  at  home  minding 
women's  work  she  answered  that  there  were  plenty  to  spin  and  wash. 

7.  "  But  mother "  said  Jean  "  they  will  all  be  expecting  me." 


PUNCTUATION  219 

8.  Our  fireside  guest  a  retired  sea  captain  loved   the  lights  and 
beacons  the  mist  and  fogbells  the  sleet  and  surge  of  winter. 

9.  I   rose  softly  slipped  on  my  clothes  opened   the  door  quietly 
and  beheld  one  of  the  most  amusing  scenes  that  I  have  ever  gazed  upon. 

10.  Like  many  other  authors  Whittier  was  attracted  in  the  autumn 
of  his  life  to  the  rich  fields  of  oriental  literature. 

11.  My  father  I  assure  you  was  a  conscientious  man  and  ever  bore 
in  mind  the  golden  maxim  "Spare  the  rod  and  spoil  the  child." 

12.  The  civilization  the  manners  and  the  morals  of  dogkind  are  to 
a  great  extent  subordinate  to  those  of  his  ancestral  master  man. 

13.  The  cat  an  animal  of  franker  appetites  preserves  his  independence 

14.  My  dog  is  a  little  very  alert  well-bred  intelligent  Skye. 

15.  Miss  Willoughby  is  a  slight  though  very  energetic  woman. 

16.  Aunt  Jane  old  and  crippled  as  she  was  took  an  active  part  in  our 
indoor  amusements. 

17.  His  old  friends  were  not  to  be  neglected  but  it  seemed  hardly 
decent  to  desert  the  new. 

18.  What  do  you  suppose  she  asked  me  then  my  dear  ? 

19.  Irving  was  born  in  1783;  Longfellow  in  1807;  and  Holmes  in 
1809. 

20.  Marjorie  had  bright  mischievous  laughing  blue  eyes  and  wavy 
light  brown  hair. 

21.  Their  father  by  the  way  when  he  learned  of  their  curious  pre- 
dicament merely  laughed  and  said  "Well  boys  you  will  have  to  get  out 
of  this  affair  the  best  way  you  can." 

22.  Ever  since  I  have  felt  ill  at  ease  in  that  old  house. 

23.  David  Lowney  M.D.  was  born  in  Edinburgh  Scotland  June  7 
1878. 

24.  Is  that  man  who  accompanied  you  home  last  night  a  friend  or 
is  he  merely  an  acquaintance? 

25.  She  was  offended  not  because  I  had  accepted  the  position  but 
because  I  did  not  ask  her  advice  beforehand. 

26.  Sink  or  swim  live  or  die  survive  or  perish  I  give  my  hand  and 
my  heart  to  this  vote. 

27.  The  cook  having  eloped  with  the  butler  we  were  compelled  to 
prepare  our  own  breakfast. 

28.  His  voice  survived  in  its  full  power  and  he  took  pride  in  using  it. 

29.  Some  of  our  party  fished  others  rowed  on  the  lake  and  others 
tramped  over  the  hills. 


220  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

30.  Why  this  is  not  my  luggage  porter. 

31.  I  yelled  I  waved  my  arms  I  blew  a  blast  on  the  conch  shell  but 
I  could  not  attract  the  attention  of  the  sailors. 

32.  When  he  learned  that  I  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  he  immedi- 
ately took  greater  interest  in  me. 

33.  Now  when  I  am  sad  I  like  nature  to  charm  me  out  of  my  sad- 
ness like  David  before  Saul. 

34.  I  was  so  lonely  that  I  gladly  talked  with  anyone  wise  or  foolish 
drunk  or  sober. 

35.  Fortunately  I  had  not  worn  my  coral  necklace  which  grand- 
mother had  given  me  as  a  graduation  present. 

36.  "Do  you  believe  in  dreams?"  asked  my  friend  as  he  gave  mother 
a  knowing  wink. 

37.  The  guide  believing  that  we  had  money  to  spend  freely  gave 
our  party  every  attention. 

38.  Her  flower  garden  not  to  mention  her  large  family  kept  her 
constantly  employed  and  interested  in  life. 

39.  Why  he  should  suspect  Venable  who  is  the  very  soul  of  honor 
of  doing  such  a  thing  I  cannot  understand. 

40.  The  natives  regarded  him  with  awe  nor  would  they  permit  him  to 
touch  the  sick  child. 

41.  From  her  position  at  the  window  she  could  see  who  each  guest 
was  what  she  wore  and  how  she  was  received  by  the  hostess. 

42.  Why  do  you  expect  me  to  believe  such  a  doubtful  if  not  utterly 
false  statement  as  that  ? 

43.  Lanham  jealous  of  Warner's  popularity  tried  to  secure  his  dis- 
missal from  the  team. 

44.  He  laughed  he  ran  he  leaped  he  sang  for  joy. 


II 

In  Chapter  VII  study  the  sentences  in  the  paragraphs  on  pages 
148  and  149  and  account  for  all  commas  used. 


Ill 

Bring  to  class  two  original  sentences  to  illustrate  each  rule  for 
the  use  of  the  comma. 


PUNCTUATION  221 

129.  The  semicolon.  The  semicolon  marks  a  greater  degree 
of  separation  than  does  the  comma.  It  is  properly  used  only 
when  it  separates  coordinate  independent  clauses,  coordinate 
dependent  clauses,  or  coordinate  phrases.  It  should  never  be 
placed,  therefore,  between  an  independent  and  a  dependent 
clause,  or  between  a  clause  and  a  phrase. 

I.  Coordinate  independent  clauses.  A  semicolon  should  be 
used  between  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  when  they 
are  not  joined  by  a  conjunction.  (For  the  exception  to  this 
rule  see  section  128,  rule  7,  Note  4.  Read  also  the  caution  that 
follows  the  rule.) 

1.  Let  them  keep  their  past ;  we  have  our  future. 

2.  The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray  ;  the  stars  gradually 
disappeared ;  the  east  began  to  kindle. 

Note  i.  A  semicolon  should  be  used  between  the  clauses  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  when  they  are  joined  by  a  conjunctive  adverb,  such  as 
however,  moreover,  hence,  consequently,  therefore,  accordingly,  like- 
wise, furthermore,  so,  also,  still,  7ievertheless,  then,  besides,  otherwise. 
A  comma  is  sometimes  placed  after  the  conjunctive  adverb. 

1.  I  missed  the  eight-ten  train;  however,  I  arrived  at  the  office  before  my 
client  appeared. 

2.  The  natives  looked  on  Jukes  with  considerable  suspicion;  hence  he 
found  it  impossible  to  secure  the  specimens  that  he  desired  for  the  museum. 

Note  2.  A  semicolon  should  be  used  between  the  clauses  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  connected  by  a  simple  conjunction,  provided  the  clauses 
are  somewhat  long  or  are  internally  punctuated  with  commas. 

1.  All  sluggish  and  pacific  pleasures  are,  to  the  same  degree,  solitary  and 
selfish;  and  every  durable  bond  between  human  beings  is  founded  in  or 
heightened  by  some  element  of  competition. 

2.  He  spoke  to  the  dog,  calling  it  to  him;  but  in  his  voice  was  a  strange 
note  of  fear  that  frightened  the  animal. 

Even  though  the  clauses  joined  by  a  simple  conjunction  are  not 
internally  punctuated  with  commas,  they  are  sometimes  separated  by  a 
semicolon,  especially  if  the  second  clause  explains  the  first  or  is  sharply 
contrasted  with  it  in  thought. 


222  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  Do  not  count  too  surely  on  success ;  for  there  is  many  a  slip 
between  the  cup  and  the  lip. 

2.  At  times  Scott's  characters  will  speak  with  a  true  heroic  note  ; 
but  on  the  next  page  they  will  be  wading  wearily  forward  with  an 
ungrammatical  and  undramatic  rigmarole  of  words. 

2.  Coordinate  dependent  clauses  or  coordinate  phrases.  A 
semicolon  should  be  used  to  separate  coordinate  dependent 
clauses  and  coordinate  phrases,  provided  the  clauses  or  phrases 
have  a  common  dependence  on  a  preceding  or  succeeding  clause 
and  are  long  or  are  internally  punctuated  with  commas. 

1.  If  only  the  others  could  be  there  also ;  if  only  there  were  no  cold 
anywhere,  and  no  nakedness,  and  no  hunger  ;  if  only  it  were  as  well  with 
all  men  as  it  was  with  him, — he  could  rest  supremely  happy. 

2.  Youth  is  the  time  to  go  flashing  from  one  end  of  the  world  to 
the  other  in  mind  and  body ;  to  hear  the  chimes  at  midnight ;  to  see 
the  sunrise  in  town  and  country ;  to  write  halting  verses  ;  to  run  a  mile 
to  see  a  fire. 

3.  Introductory  expressions.  A  semicolon  often  precedes 
such  words,  phrases,  and  abbreviations  as  namely,  as,  that  is, 
jar  example,  for  instance,  e.g.,  i.e.,  viz.,  when  they  introduce  an 
explanation  or  an  illustration.  In  modern  practice  the  introduc- 
tory expression  is  often  preceded  by  a  comma,  or  a  comma  and 
a  dash,  instead  of  a  semicolon,  especially  if  the  explanation  or 
illustration  following  the  introductory  expression  is  a  word  or  a 
phrase.  A  comma  usually  follows  such  introductory  expressions, 
although  it  is  sometimes  omitted  after  the  abbreviated  forms. 

1.  While  I  was  in  college,  my  generous  father  proved  to  be  my  most 
serious  handicap;  that  is,  he  furnished  me  too  liberal  an  allowance. 

2.  The  Greeks  invented  the  three  orders  of  architecture,  namely,  the 
Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian. 

3.  Both  crimes,  it  was  discovered,  were  committed  by  the  same  man, 
— namely,  the  interne. 

4.  Grammatically  considered,  according  to  their  form,  sentences  are 
of  four  kinds,  i.  e.  simple,  compound,  complex,  and  compound-complex. 


PUxNXTUATION  223 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  give  the  rule  for  each  comma  and  semicolon  used : 

1.  One  thing  in  life  calls  for  another ;  there  is  a  certain  fitness  in 
events  and  places. 

2.  The  difficulty  of  literature  is  not  to  write,  but  to  write  what  you 
mean  ;  not  to  affect  your  reader,  but  to  affect  him  precisely  as  you  wish. 

3.  Literature  in  many  of  its  branches  is  no  other  than  the  shadow 
of  good  talk  ;  but  the  imitation  falls  far  short  of  the  original  in  life, 
freedom,  and  effect. 

4.  All  natural  talk  is  a  festival  of  ostentation;  and,  by  the  laws  of 
the  game,  each  accepts  and  fans  the  vanity  of  the  other. 

5.  Concord  was  the  home  of  four  men  famous  in  American  Htera- 
ture,  namely,  Thoreau,  Alcott,  Emerson,  and  Hawthorne. 

6.  Hadley  was  handicapped  by  entering  college  a  month  late  ;  fur- 
thermore, he  was  compelled  to  earn  a  part  of  his  expenses. 

II 

In  the  following  exercise  ( i )  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  supply  all  necessary  commas  and  semicolons,  giving 
the  rule  for  your  use  of  each  mark  of  punctuation : 

1.  When  literature  holds  before  us  the  vision  of  the  ideal  it  points 
us  to  the  future  when  it  gives  us  a  more  sympathetic  insight  into  the 
men  and  women  with  whom  our  lot  is  cast  it  points  us  to  the  present 
when  it  restores  to  us  the  men  and  events  long  since  vanished  it  points 
us  to  the  past. 

2.  You  have  a  pair  of  eyes  how  can  you  fail  to  observe  what  is  going 
on  about  you  ? 

3.  Examinations  are  formidable  even  to  the  best  prepared  for  the 
greatest  fool  may  ask  more  than  the  wisest  man  can  answer. 

4.  These  hardy  ancestors  of  ours  were  not  simply  fighters  and  free- 
booters they  were  men  like  ourselves  their  emotions  awaken  instant 
response  in  our  souls. 

5.  That  such  doctors  should  differ  will  excite  no  great  surprise  but 
one  point  in  which  they  seem  to  agree  fills  me  I  confess  with  wonder. 


224  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

6.  Fiction  is  to  the  grown  man  what  play  is  to  the  child  it  is  there 
that  he  changes  the  atmosphere  and  tenor  of  his  life  and  when  the 
game  so  chimes  with  his  fancy  that  he  can  join  in  it  with  all  his  heart 
when  it  pleases  him  with  every  turn  when  he  loves  to  recall  it  and  dwells 
upon  its  recollection  with  entire  delight  fiction  is  called  romance. 

7.  Pitiful  is  the  case  of  the  blind  who  cannot  read  the  face  pitiful 
that  of  the  deaf  who  cannot  follow  the  changes  of  the  voice. 

8.  Forbes  had  previously  told  me  that  the  old  house  was  said  to  be 
haunted  moreover  I  had  for  several  days  felt  that  I  was  not  the  only 
occupant. 

9.  Talk  costs  nothing  in  money  it  is  all  profit  it  completes  our  edu- 
cation it  founds  and  fosters  our  friendships  and  it  can  be  enjoyed  at 
any  age  and  in  almost  any  state  of  health. 

10.  Three  of  the  greatest  periods  of  English  literature  coincide  as 
Professor  Palmer  observes  with  the  reigns  of  the  three  English  queens 
namely  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  Anne  and  Victoria. 

11.  With  George  Eliot  law  is  like  fate  it  overwhelms  personal  free- 
dom and  inclination. 

12.  The  water  of  Lethe  has  one  excellent  quality  for  a  single  draft 
of  it  makes  people  forget  every  care  and  sorrow. 


Ill 

Find  in  other  textbooks,  or  in  your  reading,  twelve  or  more  sen- 
tences illustrating  the  various  rules  for  the  use  of  the  semicolon. 

IV 

Bring  to  class  two  original  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  rules 
for  the  use  of  the  semicolon. 

130.  The  colon.  The  colon  marks  a  greater  degree  of  sep- 
aration than  does  the  comma  or  the  semicolon.  In  general,  it 
is  the  mark  of  anticipation ;  that  is,  it  stands  before  a  group  of 
words,  phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences  which  have  been  intro- 
duced by  the  expression  which  has  preceded.  Its  use  implies 
greater  formality  than  does  the  comma. 


PUNCTUATION  225 

I.  Formal  statements,  long  quotations,  and  lists  of  items. 
A  colon  should  be  used  before  formal  statements,  long  formal 
quotations,  or  lists  of  items  preceded  by  a  general  introductory 
expression.  Frequently  some  such  introductory  phrase  as  the 
following,  as  follows,  in  the  folloiving  manner,  for  this  reason, 
or  in  this  way  precedes  the  colon.  Often,  however,  such  a  phrase 
is  merely  implied. 

1.  The  capital  leading  questions  on  which  you  must  this  day  decide 
are  these  two :  first,  whether  you  ought  to  concede  ;  and  secondly,  what 
your  concession  ought  to  be. 

2.  At  the  annual  dinner  of  the  Pioneer  Club,  Dr.  Blount  spoke  as 
follows:  "As  I  look  back  over  the  years  .  .  ." 

3.  As  I  left,  my  old  friend  quoted  the  following  lines  for  my 
encouragement : 

Greatly  begin  !  though  thou  have  time 
But  for  a  single  line,  be  that  sublime; 
Not  failure,  but  low  aim,  is  crime. 

4.  Last  summer  I  read  three  unusually  interesting  books  :  "Joseph 
Vance,"  "If  Winter  Comes,"  and  "The  Americanization  of  Edward 
Bok." 

2.  An  explanation  or  an  illustration.  A  colon  should  be  used 
to  separate  the  two  parts  of  a  sentence  if  the  second  part  is  an 
explanation  or  an  illustration  of  the  first  part,  provided  the 
second  part  is  not  introduced  by  such  an  expression  as  namely, 
that  is,  etc.  (see  section  129,  rule  3). 

This,  then,  is  the  plastic  part  of  literature  :  to  embody  character, 
thought,  or  emotion  in  some  act  or  attitude  that  shall  be  remarkably 
striking  to  the  mind's  eye. 

3.  Formal  salutations.  A  colon  should  be  used  after  the 
salutation  preceding  a  formal  letter  or  a  formal  address. 

1.  My  dear  Sir  : 

In  reply  to  your  letter,  etc. 

2.  Ladies  and  Gentlemen: — On  an  occasion  such  as  this.  etc. 


226  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  ( 2 )  supply  all  necessary  commas,  semicolons,  and  colons : 

1.  Two  qualities  stand  out  supreme  in  Hugo's  masterpiece  "Les 
Miserables"  flaming  indignation  and  tender  sympathy. 

2.  In  his  note  to  Lincoln  written  after  the  Gettysburg  address 
Edward  Everett  said  "I  should  be  glad  if  I  could  flatter  myself  that 
I  came  as  near  to  the  central  idea  of  the  occasion  in  two  hours  as  you 
did  in  two  minutes." 

3.  Wherever  a  man  is  he  will  find  something  to  please  and  pacify 
him  in  the  town  he  will  meet  pleasant  faces  of  men  and  women  and  for 
the  country  there  is  no  country  without  some  amenity. 

4.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident  that  all  men  are  created 
equal  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable 
rights  that  among  these  are  life  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

5.  The  English  language  is  composed  of  two  elements  the  Saxon 
which  includes  the  Danish  Swedish  and  other  related  languages  and 
the  classical  which  includes  the  Latin  and  the  Greek. 

6.  Cambridge  was  the  home  of  three  noted  literary  men  Holmes 
who  is  known  as  "The  Autocrat"  Lowell  whose  quaint  Yankee  humor 
sparkles  in  "The  Biglow  Papers"  and  Longfellow  who  is  greatly  loved 
by  young  readers  as  the  author  of  "Evangeline." 

7.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  versatile  man  he  was  a  printer  an  in- 
ventor a  writer  a  statesman  and  a  public  benefactor. 

II 

Select  from  your  reading  or  from  other  textbooks  six  sentences 
illustrating  the  various  rules  for  the  use  of  the  colon. 

Ill 

Bring  to  class  two  original  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  rules 
for  the  use  of  the  colon. 

131.  The  period.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  the  period 
should  be  carefully  observed : 


PUNXTUATION  227 

1.  Aftrr  declarative  and  imperative  sentences.  A  period 
should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a  declarative  or  an  imperative 

sentence.  ,    „,  i    ,  r  11 

1.  We  arrived  at  four  o  clock. 

2.  Always  speak  distinctly. 

Note.  A  period  should  7wt  be  used  in  the  place  of  a  comma  or  a 
semicolon  to  separate  members  of  the  same  sentence.  Such  a  practice 
results  in  the  period  jault  (see  section  170). 

Incorrect  :  We  missed  the  train.    Just  as  mother  had  predicted. 

Correct :  We  missed  the  train,  just  as  mother  had  predicted. 

Incorrect  :  I  believe  that  the  investment  is  a  safe  one.  However,  I  do  not 
urge  you  to  put  your  money  into  it. 

Correct  :  I  believe  that  the  investment  is  a  safe  one ;  however,  I  do  not 
urge  you  to  put  your  money  into  it. 

2.  After  an  abbreviation.  A  period  should  be  used  after  an 
abbreviation. 

1.  On  the  title-page  was  printed  "Arnold  Merriam,  D.  D..  LL.  D." 

2.  Mrs.  Howard  C.  Joyce  organized  the  S.P.  C.A.  in  our  town. 

Note.  Abbreviations  which  represent  chemical  symbols  are  properly 
written  without  a  period  following.  For  e.xample  :  NaCl,  H^O.  H.,S04. 
A  few  other  abbreviations,  such  as  MS  {  =  manuscript )  and  the  phrase 
per  cent  (  =  per  centum),  may  be  written  with  or  without  the  period. 

3.  After  letters  and  figures  indicating  divisions  of  an  outline. 
A  period  should  be  placed  after  a  letter  or  a  figure  indicating  a 
division  of  an  outline.  (See  the  outlines  in  Chapters  II,  IV, 
and  V.) 

A  period  is  also  used  after  figures  preceding  consecutively 
arranged  items  in  a  list  or  an  exercise,  as  in  the  various  exer- 
cises in  this  book. 

Note  i.  If  a  figure  or  a  letter  is  inclosed  in  parentheses,  it  should 
not  be  followed  by  a  period. 

Note  2.  A  figure  placed  in  the  upper  right  corner  of  a  page  to  desig- 
nate the  page  number  should  not  be  followed  by  a  period  or  any  other 
mark  of  punctuation. 


2  28  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  After  sideheadings.  A  period  should  be  used  after  words 
and  phrases  written  as  sideheadings  of  a  paragraph  or  other 
division  of  a  piece  of  writing.  The  punctuation  of  the  title  of 
each  section  of  this  book  illustrates  this  rule. 

Note.  A  title  or  heading  centrally  spaced  on  the  page  should  not  be 
followed  by  a  period. 

5.  Ajter  topics  of  an  outline.  A  period  is  generally  used 
after  each  phrase  topic  of  an  outline.  If  the  topic  is  a  sentence, 
the  period  must  be  used.  (See  the  outlines  in  Chapters  II, 
IV,  and  V.) 

EXERCISES 
I 
In  the  following  exercise  supply  the  correct  punctuation : 

1.  History  is  one  long  illustration 

2.  Take  time  to  think  before  you  decide 

3.  Mrs  G  C  Howe  received  the  degree  of  M  A  last  June 

4.  I  hope  to  see  you  in  San  Francisco  this  summer.  If  we  are  there 
at  the  same  time 

5.  We  left  our  cards.   There  being  nothing  else  that  we  could  do 

II 

Write  and  punctuate  correctly  the  proper  abbreviations  of  the 
following  words  and  phrases.  Consult  Appendix  D  and  an  un- 
abridged dictionary  if  necessary. 

1.  Anonymous,  manuscripts,  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Civil  Engineer,  Ma- 
dame, Monsieur,  Messieurs,  Mademoiselle,  Member  of  Congress,  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  Doctor  of  Laws,  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

2.  Forenoon,  noon,  afternoon,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  before  Christ, 
east  longitude,  south  latitude. 

3.  California,  IlHnois,  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  Maine,  Florida, 
South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Colorado,  New  Jersey,  Wyoming,  West 
Indies. 


PUNCTUATION  229 

132.  The  question  mark.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of 
the  question  mark  should  be  observed : 

1.  Direct  question.  A  (juestion  mark  should  be  placed  after 
a  direct  question. 

Mother,  when  do  you  expect  Uncle  John  ? 

Note  i.  A  question  mark  should  never  be  placed  after  an  indirect 
question. 

I  asked  mother  when  she  expected  Uncle  John. 

Note  2.  Frequently  the  sentence  is  not  expressed  in  the  interrogative 
form,  and  only  the  ciuestion  mark  shows  that  it  is  meant  to  be  a 
question. 

You  will  go  ?    You  have  not  met  him  ? 

Note  3.  Questions  in  a  series  usually  have  a  question  mark  after 
each  member  of  the  series. 

What  will  people  not  do  for  money  ?  for  fame  ?  for  social  position  ? 

2.  Doubtful  statement.  A  question  mark  inclosed  in  paren- 
theses should  be  used  to  indicate  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
a  statement. 

In  the  year  1805  (  ?)  Irving  made  his  first  voyage  to  Europe. 

Note.  The  question  mark  should  not  be  used,  as  in  the  following 
sentence,  to  indicate  irony  or  humor: 

Incorrect :  What  a  beautiful  (?)  spring  hat  ! 

133.  The  exclamation  mark.  The  following  rules  for  the  use 
of  the  exclamation  mark  should  be  observed : 

I.  Words,  phrases,  or  sentences.  An  exclamation  mark  should 
be  used  after  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  which  express  strong 
emotion,  doubt,  or  irony. 

1.  O  world.  I  cannot  hold  thee  close  enough ! 

2.  That  man  a  poet !    The  idea ! 

3.  What  an  angelic  disposition  she  has  1 


230  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Interjections.  An  exclamation  mark  should  generally  be 
placed  after  an  interjection  or  other  exclamatory  word  (see 
section  128,  rule  11). 

1.  Alas  !    What  was  I  to  do  ? 

2.  Hold  !   Hold  !    Give  the  man  a  chance. 

Note.  If  an  interjection  is  repeated,  a  comma  may  be  used  to  sepa- 
rate the  words,  and  the  exclamation  mark  may  be  placed  only  at  the 
end,  especially  where  it  is  not  the  writer's  intention  to  make  each  of  the 
words  emphatic. 

1.  Ha,  ha,  ha!    That's  the  best  joke  I  ever  heard. 

2.  Aha  !  aha  !    I've  caught  you  this  time.    (Emphasis) 


EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  supply  question  marks  and  exclamation  marks,  as 
well  as  all  other  necessary  punctuation,  and  give  the  rule  for  each 
mark  of  punctuation  used : 

1.  And  what  is  love  but  a  rose  that  fades 

2.  "Brave  Admiral  speak  what  shall  I  say" 
"Why  say  'Sail  on  sail  on  and  on'  " 

3.  Lord  God  of  Hosts  be  with  us  yet 
Lest  we  forget — lest  we  forget 

4.  Wild  little  bird  who  chose  thee  for  a  sign 
To  put  upon  the  cover  of  this  book 

5.  Alas  why  must  you  leave  us  alone 

6.  O  ho  listen  to  that  What  did  I  tell  you 

7.  What  pearls  of  wisdom  0  gigantic  intellect 

8.  Wonderful  Wonderful  I  never  dreamed  of  such  grandeur 

9.  What  was  the  fate  of  Julius  Caesar  of  Hannibal  of  Napoleon 
10.  How  good  is  man's  life  the  mere  living  how  fit  to  employ 

All  the  heart  and  the  soul  and  the  senses  forever  in  joy 

134.  The  dash.  In  general,  the  dash  should  be  used  to  indi- 
cate an  abrupt  break  in  the  structure  of  a  sentence  or  a  sus- 
pension in  the  thought.  The  rules  for  the  use  of  the  dash  are 


PUNCTUATION  231 

as  definite  as  those  governin<i;  the  use  of  other  marks  of  punc- 
tuation. Careless  writers  frccjuently  misuse  the  dash.  They 
seem  to  have  but  one  rule  of  punctuatirjn :  When  in  doubt  use 
a  dash.  Such  a  slovenly  practice  should  be  avoided  by  accu- 
rately applying  the  following  rules: 

1.  Change  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence.  A  dash  should 
be  used  to  indicate  a  change  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 

She  was  reading — what  is  the  title  of  that  last  novel  by  Page? 

2.  Parenthetical  expressions.  Dashes  are  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  parentheses  to  set  off  parenthetical  expressions  that  are 
not  logically  or  structurally  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence (see  section  128,  rule  5  ;  also  section  135). 

That  dog — I  know  it  is  hard  for  you  to  believe  it  now — was  once  the 
winner  of  a  first  prize. 

3.  Summarizing  expressions.  A  dash  should  be  used  to  sepa- 
rate an  informal  enumeration  from  the  expression  that  sum- 
marizes the  thought  contained  in  the  enumeration. 

1.  These  are  not  the  elements  that  constitute  a  great  nation — gold 
and  merchandise,  banks  and  railways,  crowded  ports  and  populous  cities. 

2.  Gold  and  merchandise,  banks  and  railways,  crowded  ports  and  popu- 
lous cities — these  are  not  the  elements  that  constitute  a  great  nation. 

Note  i.  A  dash  frequently  precedes  an  expression  following  an 
apparently  completed  sentence  but  referring  to  the  whole  sentence  or 
some  part  of  it. 

When  the  bells  had  ceased  ringing,  the  woods,  the  clouds,  the  little  village, 
and  the  very  air  itself  seemed  asleep — so  silent  was  it  everywhere. 

Note  2.  A  dash  is  frequently  used  to  set  off  an  appositive  word  or 
phrase  loosely  introduced  into  the  sentence.  Such  an  appositive  often 
emphasizes  the  word  or  phrase  with  which  it  agrees. 

1.  His  father  was  a  successful  failure — a  hero  of  defeat. 

2.  What  memories  that  song  awoke — memories  I  had  supposed  long  since 
dead! 


232  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  For  dramatic  or  rhetorical  effect.  A  dash  may  sometimes 
be  used  to  mark  a  pause  intended  to  heighten  the  dramatic  or 
rhetorical  effect  of  the  sentence. 

1.  Young  man,  had  I  your  youth  and  splendid  opportunities,  I  should 
never  think  of  failure — never,  never,  never ! 

2.  The  king  of  France,  with  twice  ten  thousand  men, 
Marched  up  the  hill,  and  then — marched  down  again. 

5.  Omission  of  letters  or  figures.  A  dash  should  be  used  to 
indicate  the  omission  of  letters  or  figures. 

My  maternal  grandfather,  Judge  H n,  was  born  at  S d,  in 

the  year  18 — . 

6.  In  combination  with  other  marks  of  punctuation.  A  dash 
may  be  used  after  a  colon  follov^^ing  a  formal  salutation,  pro- 
vided the  first  sentence  of  the  letter  or  speech  begins  on  the 
same  line  with  the  salutation. 

My  dear  Madam:  —  In  reply  to  your  letter,  etc. 

A  dash  is  now  rarely  used  with  a  comma,  unless  the  comma 
would  be  required  even  if  the  dash  were  not  used. 

7.  Preceding  references.  A  dash  should  precede  a  reference 
following  a  prose  quotation.  (See  the  punctuation  preceding 
each  reference  that  is  placed  after  the  paragraphs  quoted  in 
Chapter  VII.) 

Many  otherwise  highly  civilized  Europeans  are  as  timid  in  addressing 
a  telephone  as  they  would  be  in  addressing  a  royal  sovereign. — Arnold 
Bennett,  "Your  United  States" 

EXERCISES 
I 

In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  supply  dashes,  as  well  as  other  necessary  punctua- 
tion, and  give  the  rule  for  each  mark  of  punctuation  used : 


PUNXTUATION  233 

1.  Statues  paintings  churches  poems  are  but  shadows  of  himself 
shadows  in  marble  colors  stone  words. 

2.  I  awoke  from  a  horrible  dream  and  found  that  I  was  grasping 
the  bedpost. 

3.  At  last  I  think  it  was  the  third  night  our  party  decided  that  the 
Wareham  ghost  was  nothing  but  a  myth. 

4.  Silver  had  two  guns  slung  about  him  one  before  and  one  behind 
besides  the  great  cutlass  at  his  waist  and  a  pistol  in  each  pocket  of  his 
square-tailed  coat. 

5.  Mrs.  Paige  allow  me  the  pleasure  of  introducing  my  friend  Mr. 
oh  why  can  I  never  remember  your  name 

6.  The  log  house  was  made  of  unsquared  trunks  of  pine  roof  walls 
and  floor. 

7.  A  Scotch  collie  a  large  black  cat  a  raccoon  and  a  garrulous  parrot 
these  were  the  members  of  Ward's  queer  household. 

8.  After  an  ominous  pause  the  timid  young  man  said  to  the  girl 
beside  him  "I  am  going  to  propose  that  we  go  down  town  and  get 
some  ice  cream  the  next  time  I  come."' 

9.  That  was  a  most  wonderful  experience  an  e.xperience  I  can  never 
forget. 

10.  When  you  meet  her  let  me  caution  you  beforehand  do  not  tell 
her  anything  about  my  college  record. 

11.  The  poem  begins  with  a  funeral  and  ends  with  a  marriage  a  sort 
of  "Divine  Comedy"  cheerful  at  the  close. 

12.  Love  growth  honor  sympathy  idealism  faith  fortitude  truth 
tolerance  cooperation  these  are  the  fundamentals  and  it  is  on  these 
that  the  masters  put  the  stress. 


II 

From  your  reading  find  and  bring  to  class  ten  sentences  in  which 
the  dash  is  correctly  used.  Be  prepared  to  give  the  rule  for  each 
mark  of  punctuation  used  in  these  sentences. 

135.  Parentheses.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  paren- 
theses should  be  observed: 

I.  Explanatory  expressions.  Parentheses  are  often  used  to 
inclose  explanatory  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  having  no  gram- 


234  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

matical  dependence  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence.    In  this  use 
parentheses  are  felt  to  be  slightly  more  formal  than  are  dashes. 

1.  Then  Soames  began  to  cross-question  me  (Marjorie  had  assured 
me  that  he  would),  and  he  asked  me  all  about  my  income  and  my 
prospects  of  advancement. 

2.  At  the  end  of  our  interview  Soames  gave  his  entire  consent  to 
our  marriage  (as  Marjorie  had  predicted  he  would  do). 

Note  i.  No  other  mark  of  punctuation  should  be  used  with  paren- 
theses, unless  (as  in  the  sentences  above)  such  a  mark  would  be  re- 
quired if  the  parenthetic  matter  were  omitted. 

Note  2.  Parentheses  may  also  be  used  to  inclose  a  phrase  or  a  clause 
that  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  syntax  of  the  sentence. 

Wha.t  changes  (if  any)  would  you  suggest? 

2 .  Figures  and  letters  marking  divisions.  Parentheses  should 
be  used  to  inclose  figures  and  letters  included  in  the  text  of  a 
piece  of  writing  to  indicate  division  or  order  of  enumeration. 

The  four  forms  of  discourse  are  (i)  narration,  (2)  description, 
(3)  exposition,  and  (4)  argument. 

136.  Brackets.  Brackets  should  be  used  to  inclose  expla- 
nations, comments,  queries,  corrections,  criticisms,  or  directions 
inserted  in  the  text  by  some  other  person  than  the  original 
speaker  or  writer. 

1.  I  remember  seeing  him  [Stevenson]  for  the  last  time  in  1888. 

2.  I  have  always  maintained,  as  I  always  shall  [maintain],  that  the 
sentence  was  unjust. 

3.  My  uncle's  home,  like  most  of  the  historic  old  houses  of  New 
England,  had  much  more  atmosphere  than  fresh  air.    [Laughter] 


EXERCISE 

In  the  following  exercise  classify  each  sentence  grammatically, 
and  supply  parentheses  and  brackets,  as  well  as  all  other  necessary 
punctuation,  and  give  the  rule  for  each  mark  of  punctuation  used: 


PUNCTUATION  235 

1.  I  brought  my  old  friend  home  with  me  to  spend  the  night  never 
suspecting  that  he  would  remain  my  guest  for  a  whole  month. 

2.  My  acquaintance  began  with  her  Mrs.  Eastman  when  I  was  in 
the  hospital. 

3.  The  genial  old  fellow  we  never  dreamed  that  he  was  a  private 
detective  was  a  great  favorite  with  all  the  hotel  guests. 

4.  In  one  of  the  queerest  corners  of  the  town  Marblehead  there 
stands  a  house  as  modest  as  the  Ames  house  is  magnificent. 

5.  My  friends  this  speech  of  mine  I  may  as  well  admit  it  at  the 
outset  was  written  by  my  wife.   Laughter  and  applause. 

137.  Quotation  marks.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of 
quotation  marks  should  be  observed : 

I.  Direct  quotations.  Quotation  marks  should  be  used  to 
inclose  a  direct  quotation. 

1.  "What  a  wonderful  view  this  is!"  e.xclaimed  my  friend. 

2.  "Were  you,"  she  asked,  "in  college  with  my  son?" 

3.  "Yes,"  I  replied,  "I  knew  Harry  well.  We  played  on  the  basket- 
ball team  together." 

Note  i.  If  the  quotation  is  interrupted  by  a  parenthetical  expression 
(such  as  she  asked  and  /  replied  in  the  second  and  third  sentences 
above),  the  quotation  is  closed  before  the  expression  and  opened  again 
after  it  (see  section  128,  rule  8). 

Note  2.  Indirect  quotations  should  not  be  inclosed  in  quotation 
marks. 

She  asked  me  whether  I  had  been  in  college  with  her  son. 

Note  3.  Proverbs  and  well-known  quotations  from  such  sources  as 
the  Bible  or  the  writings  of  Shakespeare  may  be  written  without  quota- 
tion marks. 

1.  This  is  the  central  idea  of  the  story:  a  little  child  shall  lead  them. 

2.  The  life  of  that  family  for  the  last  three  generations  proves  true  this 
familiar  saying :  the  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

2.  Long  quotations.  In  an  uninterrupted  quotation  consist- 
ing of  several  paragraphs  or  stanzas,  quotation  marks  should 


236  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

be  used  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  or  stanza,  but  at 
the  end  of  the  last  one  only. 

3.  Quotation  within  a  quotation.  Single  quotation  marks 
should  be  used  to  inclose  a  quotation  within  a  quotation. 

"In  spite  of  all  my  attempts  to  restrain  him,"  sobbed  Vivian,  "he 
leaped  to  his  feet  and  shouted,  'That's  a  lie.'" 

4.  Titles.  According  to  the  best  usage,  quotation  marks  are 
used  to  inclose  the  quoted  title  of  ( i )  a  poem,  a  story,  an  essay, 
an  article,  a  chapter,  or  any  other  division  of  a  book  or  other 
publication;  (2)  a  single  musical  composition;  (3)  a  picture; 
or  (4)  a  statue.  The  quoted  title  of  a  book  may  likewise  be 
inclosed  in  quotation  marks,  or,  like  the  quoted  title  of  a  maga- 
zine or  a  newspaper,  it  may  be  indicated  by  the  use  of  italics 
(see  section  142,  rule  i). 

1.  I  read  "The  Floor  of  Heaven"  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

2.  At  the  recital,  Helen  played  Mendelssohn's  "Spring  Song." 

3.  "The  Song  of  the  Lark"  was  painted  by  Jules  Breton. 

4.  On  the  lawyer's  desk  was  a  copy  of  Rodin's  "The  Thinker." 

5.  Have  you  read  George  Eliot's  "Adam  Bede"? 

Note.  A  title  that  stands  at  the  head  of  a  composition  should  not 
be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  unless  the  title  is  itself  a  quotation. 

5.  Quotation  mark  used  with  another  mark  of  punctuation. 
When  a  quotation  mark  and  some  other  mark  of  punctuation 
both  follow  a  word,  they  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  illus- 
trated in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  He  shouted,  "  Can  you  hear  me  ?  " 

2.  Did  she  say,  "I  refuse"? 

3.  "How  shall  I  explain  your  absence?"  I  asked. 

4.  Hamblen  considers  that,  I  suppose,  another  of  his  "inalienable 
rights"  ;  the  judge,  however,  may  think  differently. 

5.  "Never,"  he  declared,  "have  I  read  a  better  book." 


PUNXTUATION  237 

6.  Miscellaneous  uses.  Quotation  marks  may  be  used  to  in- 
close (i)  slang  words,  (2)  nicknames,  (3)  unusual  or  coined 
words,  or  (4)  words  used  humorously  or  ironically. 

1.  I  never  saw  Dean  Blake  more  "dolled  up"  than  he  was  at  the 
faculty  reception  for  the  seniors. 

2.  "Diogenes''  Brodie  was  a  terror  to  all  freshmen. 

3.  It  was  an  amusing  sight  watching  that  tall  Wilson  boy  "pogoing" 
along  with  tiny  May  Bryce. 

4.  At  the  end  of  the  first  semester  a  number  of  students  suddenly 
decide  to  leave  college  "'to  help  father  in  his  business"  or  "to  rest 
their  eyes." 

Note.  Slang,  nicknames,  or  words  used  humorously  or  ironically 
need  not  be  apologized  for  by  placing  them  in  quotation  marks  when 
they  are  used  in  colloquial  or  humorous  writing. 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  exercise  (i)  classify  each  sentence  grammati- 
cally and  (2)  supply  quotation  marks,  as  well  as  all  other  punctua- 
tion, and  give  the  rule  for  each  mark  of  punctuation : 

1.  Genius  said  Professor  James  Frederick  Ferrier  is  nothing  else  than 
the  power  of  seeing  wonders  in  common  things 

2.  Have  you  read  Good  Company  a  poem  by  Karle  Wilson  Baker 

3.  On  rising  the  lecturer  held  up  a  sheet  of  paper  and  said  You  see 
before  you  referring  to  the  paper  all  that  you  have  to  fear  or  hope 

4.  Come  to  Concord  wrote  Ellery  Channing  to  Hawthorne  once  upon 
a  time  Emerson  is  away  and  nobody  is  here  to  bore  you 

5.  Bryant's  biographer  says  The  aged  poet  wrote  to  a  friend  Is 
there  a  penny-post  do  you  think  in  the  world  to  come  Do  people  there 
write  for  autographs  to  those  who  have  gained  a  little  notoriety  Do 
women  there  send  letters  asking  for  money 

6.  Nonsense  exclaimed  Uncle  John  I  don't  believe  a  word  of  it 

7.  Having  observed  the  baby  hippopotamus  Nell  said  Isn't  he  a 
dear 

8.  We  presented  Miss  Blake  with  a  framed  copy  of  The  Age  of 
Innocence  Mary  announced 


238  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

9.  The  wisest  man  I  ever  knew  observed  the  cynic  chose  as  the 
motto  of  his  happy  Hfe  this  simple  statement  ignorance  is  bliss 

10.  When  she  met  you  at  the  door  asked  Barbara  did  she  exclaim 
as  usual  Well  of  all  things 

II 

From  your  reading  find  and  bring  to  class  ten  sentences  illus- 
trating the  rules  for  the  use  of  quotation  marks. 

Ill 

Write  two  sentences  to  illustrate  each  of  the  rules  for  the  use  of 
quotation  marks. 

138.  The  apostrophe.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
apostrophe  should  be  observed: 

I.  Possessive  case.  An  apostrophe  should  be  used  to  indicate 
the  possessive  case. 

1.  He  enjoyed  children's  games. 

2.  Peter's  wife's  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever. 

3.  Have  you  read  Burns's  poems  and  Dickens's  novels  ? 

4.  Miss  Ames  is  in  either  the  boys'  or  the  girls'  study  hall. 

Note.  The  pronouns  ours,  yours,  hers,  its,  theirs,  and  whose  should 
never  be  written  with  an  apostrophe  (see  section  147,  rule  10). 

2.  Plural  of  letters  and  figures.  An  apostrophe  should  be 
used  to  form  the  plural  of  letters  and  figures. 

1.  Your  u's  and  7i's  are  too  much  alike. 

2.  Your  j's  resemble  your  ^'s. 

3.  The  B.P.  O.  E.'s  gave  a  dance  at  their  hall  last  night. 

3.  Contractions.  An  apostrophe  should  stand  in  the  place  of 
the  letter  or  letters  omitted  in  a  contraction. 

1.  We  didn't  retire  until  twelve  o'clock. 

2.  I  can't  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  statement,  but  I've  heard  that 
they're  wealthy. 


PUNCTUATION  239 

Note.  The  apostrophe  should  always  be  carefully  placed  between 
the  letters  where  the  omission  occurs.  An  apostrophe  frequently  marks 
the  omission  of  the  first  two  figures  in  a  year  date. 

He  is  a  member  of  the  famous  class  of  '95. 

139.  The  hyphen.  A  hyphen  is  used  ( i )  to  separate  the  parts 
ot  many  compound  words  and  (2)  to  mark  the  division  of  a 
word  into  syllables. 

self-government,  well-known ;  al-le-vi-ate,  zo-ol-o-gy 

140.  The  caret.  A  caret  { ^)  should  be  used  to  indicate  the 

unintentional  omission  of  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  in  a  line  of 

manuscript.    The  omitted  word  or  group  of  words  is  written 

above  the  line,  and  the  caret  indicates  the  point  at  which  the 

omission  occurs. 

pay  me 

He  has  not  paid  me  a  cent,  and  he  will  never /\  until  I  bring  suit 

against  him. 

141.  Points  and  asterisks.  Points  (.  .  .)  or  asterisks  (*  *  *) 
should  be  used  to  indicate  that  portions  of  material  have  been 
omitted  from  a  quotation. 

1.  Whitman's  ''Leaves  of  Grass"  .  .  .  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all 
parents  and  guardians  as  a  specific  for  the  distressing  malady  of  being 
seventeen  years  old. 

2.  Of  all  the  rides  since  the  birth  of  time. 


The  strangest  ride  that  ever  was  sped 
Was  Ireson's  out  from  Marblehead  ! 

142.  Italics.  Italics  should  be  indicated  in  manuscript  by 
underscoring  with  one  straight  line  the  letter,  word,  phrase,  or 
other  unit  of  expression  that  would  be  printed  in  italic  type. 
The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  italics  should  be  observed : 


240  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

I.  Titles.  Titles  of  newspapers,  magazines,  and  manuscripts, 
if  quoted,  are  usually  printed  in  italics.  Quoted  titles  of  books, 
if  not  inclosed  in  quotation  marks,  should  be  italicized  (see 
section  137,  rule  4). 

1.  I  have  read  two  stories  in  Scribner's  Magazine. 

2.  I  enjoy  reading  Lije. 

Note.  If  the  title  of  a  book,  poem,  story,  or  essay  begins  with  the 
article  the,  the  article  should  be  included  in  the  title.  In  writing  the 
title  of  newspapers  and  magazines  the  is  usually  not  capitalized  or 
italicized. 

1.  Have  you  read  "The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel"? 

2.  I  have  read  "The  Enemy"  in  the  Century  Magazine. 

3.  The  account  of  her  marriage  appeared  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post. 

2.  Emphasis.  Italics  may  be  used  to  give  special  emphasis  to 
a. word  or  group  of  words.  Such  use  is  illustrated  in  section  126. 
Italics  should  not  be  overworked,  however,  for  they  are  at  best 
merely  a  mechanical  means  of  securing  emphasis. 

3.  Sideheadings.  Italics  may  be  used  as  a  device  for  making 
sideheadings  stand  out  in  contrast  with  the  Roman  type.  Such 
use  is  illustrated  at  the  beginning  of  most  of  the  rules  in  this 
chapter. 

4.  Foreign  words.  Foreign  words  and  phrases  not  yet  incor- 
porated into  the  English  language  should  be  italicized  when 
used  in  connection  with  English  words. 

1.  In  spite  of  all  her  wretchedness  there  remained  a  certain  joie  de 
vivre  in  the  expression  of  her  eyes. 

2.  Many  of  his  statements  I  accept  cum  grano  salis. 

Note  i.  Foreign  words  that  have  been  Anglicized  should  not  be 
printed  in  italics. 

encore,  dramatis  personae,  vice  versa,  facsimile,  garage 

Note  2.  Usually  the  following  abbreviations  of  foreign  words  are 

not  italicized : 

etc.,  cf.,  e.g.,  I.e.,  vs.,  viz. 


PUNCTUATION  241 

5.  Words,  letters,  and  figures.  Words,  letters,  and  figures  re- 
ferred to  merely  as  such  (without  particular  reference  to  the 
meaning)  should  be  italicized. 

1.  And,  but,  and  so  were  the  only  connectives  that  he  used. 

2.  Your  o's  and  a's  are  indistinguishable. 

3.  Make  your  I's  and  fs  more  carefully. 

6.  Names  of  ships.   Names  of  ships  should  be  italicized. 

My  aunt  went  to  Europe  on  the  Olympic,  but  returned  on  the 
Eomeric. 

EXERCISES 


Punctuate  and  italicize  the  following  sentences  correctly  and 
state  in  each  case  the  rules  involved : 

1.  Why  Mrs  Ames  I  read  the  Herald  every  week  said  my  aunt. 

2.  My  escort  said  bon  jour  whereas  he  meant  au  revoir. 

3.  The  sinking  of  the  Titanic  in  April  191 2  was  a  great  disaster. 

4.  How  many  persons  in  the  class  have  read  Mrs  Comers  story 
The  Preliminaries  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  asked  our  instructor. 

5.  I  prefer  Henry  Esmond  to  Vanity  Fair. 

6.  The  Americanization  of  Edward  Bok  which  is  the  autobiography 
of  the  former  editor  of  the  Ladies  Home  Journal  is  a  book  that  you 
will  enjoy  reading  wrote  my  grandfather. 

7.  Our  home  was  built  in  the  early  70s. 

8.  She  has  acquired  the  provoking  habit  of  beginning  each  sentence 
with  and  so  and  ending  it  with  you  know. 

II 

Write  two  original  sentences  illustrating  each  use  of  italics.  Be 
sure  that  your  sentences  are  correctly  punctuated  throughout. 

143.  Capital  letters.  The  following  rules  for  the  use  of  cap- 
ital letters  should  be  observed: 


242  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

I.  First  word  of  every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry.  The 
iirst  word  of  every  sentence  and  the  first  word  of  every  line  of 
poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

1.  The  old  house  was  shrouded  in  mystery. 

2.  Under  the  wide  and  starry  sky 

Dig  the  grave  and  let  me  lie : 
Glad  did  I  live  and  gladly  die, 

And  I  laid  me  down  with  a  will.  —  Stevenson 

2.  First  word  of  every  direct  question.  The  first  word  of 
every  direct  question  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

1.  Then  came  the  sobering  reflection,  Should  I  have  acted  differently 
under  similar  circumstances  ? 

2.  The  momentous  question  What  shall  I  wear  to  the  dance  ?  has 
given  me  no  peace  since  I  received  the  invitation. 

3.  First  word  of  every  direct  quotation.  The  first  word  of 
every  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

She  asked,  "Why  did  you  return?" 

Note  i.  Do  not  begin  the  first  word  of  an  indirect  quotation  with  a 

capital  letter. 

She  asked  me  why  I  had  returned. 

Note  2.  If  a  sentence  quotation  is  broken  by  a  parenthetical  ex- 
pression such  as  he  said,  she  asked,  I  replied,  the  second  part  of  the 
quotation  should  not  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

"Why,"  she  asked,  "did  you  return  ?" 

Note  3.  A  quoted  phrase  incorporated  in  the  writer's  own  sen- 
tence should  not  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Catherine  was  fond  of  "beginning  doubtfully  and  far  away"  when  she 
had  an  unusual  piece  of  gossip  to  tell. 

4.  Proper  nouns  and  proper  adjectives.  All  nouns  used  as 
names  of  persons,  races,   languages,   towns,  cities,  counties, 


PUNXTUATION  243 

states,  countries,  oceans,  bays,  lakes,  rivers,  streets,  avenues, 
parks,  squares,  events  in  history,  epochs  of  time,  political  par- 
ties, religious,  social,  and  educational  institutions,  religious 
sects,  etc.,  and  the  adjectives  derived  from  such  nouns,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Thomas  Hardy,  Caucasian,  the  French  language.  Springfield,  Los 
Angeles,  Middlesex  County,  Wisconsin,  Alaska,  Pacific  Ocean,  Galves- 
ton Bay,  Lake  Ontario,  St.  Lawrence  River,  Commerce  Street,  Fifth 
Avenue,  Brackenridge  Park,  Alamo  Plaza,  Norman  Conquest,  the 
Middle  Ages,  Republican,  Presbyterian,  Carlton  College,  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  American  Indians,  English  literature. 

Note  i.  The  words  negro,  gypsy,  and  italic  or  italics  are  properly 
written  without  capital  letters. 

Note  2.  Many  words  derived  from  proper  nouns  are  no  longer 
written  with  capital  letters,  because  long  usage  has  caused  them  to  lose 
all  association  with  the  words  from  which  they  are  derived. 

dahlia  (from  Dahl)  ;  bedlam  (from  Bethlehem)  ;  macadamize  (from  Mc- 
Adam)  ;  boycott  (from  Boycott). 

5.  Names  of  days  and  months.  Names  of  the  days  of  the 
week  and  names  of  the  months,  but  not  the  names  of  the  sea- 
sons, should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Wednesday,  February,  autumn 

6.  Sections  of  a  country.  Names  of  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass, when  they  designate  parts  of  a  country,  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter,  but  not  when  they  indicate  merely  direction. 

1.  Father  owns  a  large  ranch  in  the  Southwest. 

2.  Our  house  faces  east. 

7.  Common  nouns  used  in  proper  names.  When  such  com- 
mon nouns  as  river,  lake,  street,  avenue,  park,  county,  college, 
university,  high  school,  company,  society,  railway,  etc.  are  used 
as  a  part  of  a  proper  name,  they  should  begin  with  a  capital 


244  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

letter,  but  not  otherwise.  Observe  closely  the  capitalization  in 
the  following  models : 

1.  Have  you  ever  seen  Yellowstone  Park? 

2.  I  met  many  people  strolling  in  the  park. 

3.  I  am  a  student  of  the  Richmond  High  School. 

4.  I  entered  high  school  at  the  age  of  twelve. 

5.  The  factory  of  the  Grayson  Electric  Company  was  on  Garfield 
Street. 

6.  The  company  failed  in  business. 

8.  Titles  of  honor  or  office.  Titles  of  honor  or  office  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter  when  used  formally  or  in  connection 
with  a  proper  name,  but  not  otherwise. 

1.  The  Secretary  of  State  conferred  with  the  President. 

2.  We  asked  the  advice  of  Judge  Malcolm  Wade  and  Dr.  Philip 
Loring. 

3.  The  judge  and  the  doctor  gave  us  the  same  advice. 

Q.  Titles  of  family  relationship.  Words  denoting  family  re- 
lationship, such  as  uncle,  aunt,  cousin,  grandfather,  grand- 
mother, should  begin  with  capitals  only  when  they  are  used 
with  the  name  of  the  person.  Observe  carefully  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  I  have  been  visiting  Uncle  John  and  Aunt  Clara. 

2.  My  cousin  has  returned  to  her  grandmother's  home. 

3.  Tell  me,  mother,  of  the  first  time  you  met  father. 

10.  Literary  titles.  In  literary  titles  the  first  word  and  all 
other  important  words  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

1.  Have  you  read  "The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner"? 

2.  We  enjoyed  reading  "Mammon  and  the  Archer." 

3.  His  text  was  taken  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

4.  The  passage  is  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 

11.  Words  naming  or  referring  to  the  Deity.  All  names  of 
God,  as  well  as  expressions  used  as  titles  of  the  Deity,  should 


PUNCTUATION  245 

begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  are 
usually  capitalized  only  in  case  of  possible  ambiguity  as  to 
the  noun  to  which  they  refer. 

1.  May  the  Lord  prosper  your  undertaking. 

2.  In  all  things  let  His  will  be  done. 

12.  Names  of  school  classes.  The  words  frcshmatj,  sopho- 
more, junior,  and  senior  may  begin  with  either  a  capital  or  a 
small  letter  when  they  are  used  with  the  word  class ;  otherwise 
they  should  be  written  with  a  small  letter. 

1.  She  is  a  member  of  the  Senior  Class  (or  senior  class). 

2.  The  freshmen  and  the  sophomores  have  an  annual  push-ball  con- 
test. 

13.  I  and  O.  The  words  7  and  O  should  always  be  capitalized. 
The  word  oh  is  capitalized  only  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence. 

14.  Personification.  Words  representing  personification  are 
usually  capitalized. 

Behold  where  Night  clutches  the  cup  of  heaven 
And  quaffs  the  beauty  of  the  world  away ! 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 


Copy  the  following  passage,  dividing  it  correctly  into  sentences 
and  supplying  all  necessary  punctuation,  capital  letters,  and  italics : 

-^(Jfter  a  sojourn  at  a  deserted  mining  station  in  the^lifomia(^oast 
fi^nge  .the  story  oL^which  if  tolcL  jn  the'^lverado^uattersy^gyenson 
with  his  wife  andSjepsoa^oyd  ^sbourne,  returned  t(^>:otlanck.^ronic 
lung  disease  had  now  settled  upon  hiny  and  he  was  subject  to  cough^ 
hemorrhage  and  fever  ,yor  the  next  few  years  he  spent  the  summers 
in  Scotland,  the  wapters  in  s^vitzerland  or^outhern  ^ance .  and  then 
he  tried  to  live  in©iglan(^  was  during  one  of  his  visits  to  theScotch 
ttiighlands,  1881  that  he  wrote  Jhe  Aerry  IV.en''a  story  of  the  terrors 
of  the  sea, and  that  he  began  his  best  known  boolc  lreasure^land;me 


246  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

interesting  facts  connected  with  the  origin  and  development  of  this 
story  are  told  in  the  next  section  of  this  introduction  Ahe  success  of 
this  book  in  i88^  was  but  the  prelude  to  other  s4iccesse&>iAi886  came 
Widnarajed  'an^  tne  strange  case  of  yj^kyll  and  r^V4'd^'>yi^  former 
""'"'chSjevenson  regarded  as  his  best  is  a  storj/.  of  adventure  in  the 
ilands  sjx)n  after  th^^cobiteirebellion  of  i745»^s  chief  characteio 
ilRecK^^wartyis  drawn  with  greater  subtle^  and  truth  th^n'mhn 
Jver  i^'treasure  islaniq^e  earlier  triumph  or^tevensons  art^sj)  close 
is  kidnapped  to  the  sou  that  in  the  long  flight  of  alan  and  david  the 
wind  seems  to  turn  the  pages  of  that  swift  record  and  the  smell  of 
the  heather  comes  with  it  dr  jekyll  and  mr  hyde  is  an  allegory  of  the 
struggle  between  good  and  evil  in  human  nature 


II 

Account  for  all  the  punctuation  used  in  three  or  more  paragraphs 
that  your  teacher  may  assign  you  in  "Self-Cultivation  in  English" 
or  in  one  of  your  texts  in  literature  or  history. 

Ill 

Copy  the  following  passage,  dividing  it  properly  into  paragraphs 
and  sentences  and  supplying  all  necessary  punctuation,  capital 
letters,  and  italics : 

novelists  it  seems  are  no  heroes  to  their  barbers  mr  thomas  hardys 
barber  recently  confided  to  mr  f  hadland  davis  that  in  his  opinion  the 
novelist  is  a  sadly  overrated  man  the  barbers  comments  as  reported  by 
mr  davis  to  the  bookman  were  these  he  is  such  a  quiet  little  man 
youd  never  know  it  was  thomas  hardy  he  wears  an  old  overcoat  and 
carries  a  baggy  umbrella  he  used  to  talk  to  me  about  london  as  it  was 
years  ago  when  cockfighting  was  all  the  rage  ive  never  read  any  of  his 
books  nor  do  i  care  to  read  them  americans  seem  to  think  a  lot  of  him 
one  of  them  came  in  here  the  other  day  have  you  seen  thomas  hardy  he 
asked  me  oh  yes  i  said  he  sat  in  the  chair  youre  sitting  in  in  this  chair 
shouted  the  american  much  excited  yes  i  replied  i  cut  mr  hardys  hair 
did  you  keep  the  hair  you  cut  off  asked  my  customer  putting  his  hand 
into  his  pocket  no  said  i  i  didnt  well  thats  a  pity  replied  the  yankee 
because  if  you  had  id  have  bought  it   Youth's  Companion 


PUNCTUATION  247 

IV 

Write  a  page  or  two  of  dialogue  on  any  subject  that  you  may 
select.  Be  sure  that  it  is  correctly  divided  into  paragraphs  and 
properly  punctuated. 


In  your  study  of  punctuation  and  in  your  application  of  the  rules 
of  punctuation  in  your  own  writing,  are  you  following  the  six  direc- 
tions given  in  section  127  ?  Read  these  directions  again  and  answer 
this  question  frankly. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SPECIAL  CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  AND  SENTENCE 
STRUCTURE 

144.  Purpose  of  this  chapter.  Before  we  can  speak  and  write 
correctly  we  must  not  only  understand  the  rules  and  principles 
of  composition  but  must  also  overcome  any  bad  habits  of  ex- 
pression into  which  we  have  ignorantly  or  carelessly  fallen. 
By  closely  watching  our  speech  we  may  break  ourselves  of  such 
bad  habits  and  establish  in  their  stead  habits  of  correct  expres- 
sion. Solecisms,  or  violations  of  the  rules  of  grammar,  we  must 
learn  to  avoid  first  of  all.  (For  the  definition  of  solecism  see 
section  i8i.  The  list  of  errors  in  diction  in  section  i86  includes 
many  examples  of  solecisms.)  In  the  present  chapter  a  number 
of  details  of  grammar  and  sentence  structure  that  are  often  over- 
looked or  imperfectly  understood  are  explained  and  illustrated. 
By  studying  these  explanations  closely  and  by  correcting  the 
sentences  given  in  the  various  exercises  we  shall  be  able  to  im- 
prove the  correctness  of  our  speech  and  writing.  We  should 
remember  that  only  through  self-cultivation  can  we  learn  to 
avoid  mistakes  in  the  expression  of  our  thoughts.  Errors  in 
grammar  and  sentence  structure  constitute  the  most  serious 
violations  of  good  form  in  composition. 

In  addition  to  studying  this  chapter  closely  when  it  is  as- 
signed by  the  teacher,  we  should  make  regular  use  of  it  for 
reference  throughout  our  study  of  composition.  Likewise,  the 
other  chapters  dealing  with  sentence  structure,  as  well  as  those 
chapters  devoted  to  punctuation,  diction,  grammar,  and  spell- 
ing, we  should  use  for  frequent  reference. 

248 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMiMAR  249 

I.    Special  Cautions  in  Grammar 
A.  Agreement  oj  Subject  and  Predicate 

145.  General  rule  of  agreement.  A  verb  should  agree  in 
number  and  person  with  its  subject,  nut  with  its  predicate 
nominative. 

1.  They  are  the  committee  appointed. 

2.  His  chief  interest  in  life  was  good  books. 

146.  Special  rules  of  agreement.  The  following  rules  of 
agreement  between  subject  and  predicate  should  be  carefully 
observed : 

1.  Compound  subject  joined  by  and.  A  compound  subject 
joined  by  and  usually  requires  a  plural  verb, 

1.  Tennis  and  rowing  are  my  favorite  forms  of  exercise. 

2.  Constance  and  I  are  cousins. 

Note.  If  the  parts  of  a  compound  subject  joined  by  and  are  nearly 
synonymous,  or  together  constitute  a  single  idea  or  unit,  a  singular 
verb  is  required. 

1.  In  youth  his  end  and  aim  was  a  college  education. 

2.  The  St.  Paul  and  Milwaukee  has  recently  declared  a  dividend. 

2.  Compound  subject  joined  by  or  or  nor.  A  compound  sub- 
ject joined  by  or  or  nor  requires  a  singular  verb  if  each  portion 
of  the  subject  is  singular. 

1.  Either  your  clock  or  my  watch  is  wrong. 

2.  Neither  Tom  nor  Fred  has  returned. 

Note.  If  the  members  of  a  compound  subject  joined  by  or  or  nor 
differ  in  person  or  number,  the  verb  should  generally  be  of  the  person 
and  number  required  by  the  part  of  the  subject  nearer  the  verb. 

1.  Neither  you  nor  he  has  my  permission. 

2.  Has  he  or  I  the  better  claim  to  the  property  ? 

3.  Do  you  or  Ann  know  who  the  visitor  is  ? 

4.  It  seems  that  either  they  or  I  am  mistaken. 


2  50  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Careful  writers  usually  avoid  such  sentences  as  these  by  resorting 
to  the  following  arrangement: 

■  1.  Neither  of  you  has  my  permission. 

2.  Has  he  a  better  claim  to  the  property  than  I? 

3.  Do  you  know  who  the  visitor  is,  or  does  Ann  know  ? 

4.  It  seems  that  they  are  mistaken,  or  that  I  am. 

3.  Nouns  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning.  Such  nouns 
as  news,  measles,  mumps,  molasses,  gallows,  physics,  economics, 
mathematics,  trumps,  though  plural  in  form,  are  singular  in 
meaning  and  require  a  singular  verb. 

1.  Measles  is  often  injurious  to  one's  eyes. 

2.  Economics  is  his  favorite  study. 

Note.  Such  words  as  athletics,  politics,  means,  and  pains  (meaning 
care)  may  be  considered  either  singular  or  plural. 

1.  Athletics  forms  {or  form)  an  important  part  of  school  activities. 

2.  Great  pains  was  {or  were)  taken  to  provide  for  their  comfort. 

4.  Collective  nouns.  Collective  nouns,  such  as  school,  class, 
team,  company,  audience,  committee,  jury,  family,  flock,  herd, 
squad,  regiment,  nation,  may  take  either  a  singular  or  a  plural 
verb,  according  to  their  meaning. 

1.  Our  team  was  victorious. 

2.  The  family  has  recently  moved  away. 

3.  The  jury  have  not  yet  agreed  on  the  evidence. 

4.  The  audience  were  of  different  opinions  regarding  the  speaker's 
meaning. 

Note  i.  Nouns  denoting  quantity  and  amount,  such  as  half,  part, 
portion,  number,  may  take  either  a  singular  or  a  plural  verb,  according 
to  their  meaning. 

1.  Half  of  the  street  has  been  paved. 

2.  Half  of  the  audience  were  foreigners. 

3.  The  number  of  automobile  accidents  in  this  city  is  alarming. 

4.  A  number  of  accidents  occur  every  day. 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMMAR  251 

Note  2.  Expressions  indicating  sums  or  multiples  of  numbers  prop- 
erly require  a  singular  verb,  though  usage  tolerates  a  plural  verb. 

1.  Twelve  and  five  is  seventeen. 

2.  Nine  times  sLs  is  fifty-four. 

5.  Intervening  expressions.  The  number  of  the  subject  i.s  not 
affected  by  other  words  connected  with  it  by  such  e.xpressions 
as  with,  along  with,  together  with,  in  company  with,  accom- 
panied by,  as  well  as,  including,  no  less  than,  in  addition  to. 

1.  The  estate,  including  a  large  number  of  rare  books  and  paintings, 
was  sold. 

2.  Mrs.  Felton,  with  her  three  daughters,  is  spending  the  summer 
in  Colorado. 

6.  Relative  pronoun  used  as  subject.  A  relative  pronoun  is 
of  the  same  person  and  number  as  its  antecedent.  When  a  rela- 
tive pronoun  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  care  must  be  exer- 
cised in  choosing  the  right  person  and  number  of  the  verb. 

1.  I,  who  am  your  friend,  advise  you  to  refuse  his  offer. 

2.  She  is  one  of  the  noblest  women  who  have  ever  lived. 

3.  The  recent  fire  was  among  the  most  disastrous  that  have  occurred 
in  the  history  of  our  town.  (In  this  sentence  that  is  plural  to  agree 
with  the  implied  antecedent  fires.) 

7.  Indefinite  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  nouns.  Such  indefi- 
nite words  as  each,  every,  either,  neither,  anyone,  everyone, 
someone,  no  one,  one,  anybody,  everybody,  a  person,  are  singu- 
lar and  therefore  require  singular  verbs  and  singular  pronouns. 

1.  Each  has  his  faults. 

2.  A  person  is  judged  by  his  associates. 

3.  Everybody  learns  by  e-xperience  to  know  himself. 

Note  i.  All,  none,  and  some  may  take  either  a  singular  or  a  plural 
verb,  according  to  their  meaning. 

1.  All  has  been  lost. 

2.  All  were  present. 


2  52  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  None  has  (or  have)  been  found  to  solve  the  mystery. 

4.  Some  of  the  fruit  has  rotted. 

5.  Some  vi'ere  late  in  arriving. 

Note  2.  Both,  few,  many,  and  several  take  a  plural  verb. 

1.  Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen. 

2.  Several  have  asked  for  an  explanation. 

8.  Ungrammatical  use  of  don't  and  was.  Don't  (the  con- 
traction of  do  not)  should  never  be  used  with  a  third-person 
singular  subject.  Such  expressions  as  he  don't,  it  don't,  that 
don't,  don't  he  ?  don't  it  ?  don't  that  ?  should  be  avoided. 

Correct:   He  doesn't  enjoy  reading  poetry. 
Correct:    Doesn't  that  surprise  you? 

Was  should  never  be  used  with  a  second-person  subject. 
Such  expressions  as  you  was  and  was  you  ?  should  be  avoided. 

Correct:  You  were  mistaken  in  your  guess. 
Correct:  Were  you  at  the  dance  last  night? 


EXERCISES 


In  the  following  sentences  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
errors  in  agreement  of  subject  and  predicate : 

1.  Neither  his  son  nor  his  wife  know  where  he  is. 

2.  There  was  twelve  people  injured  in  the  wreck. 

3.  Everybody  in  the  crowd  were  ready  for  their  breakfast. 

4.  A  number  of  books  is  missing  from  the  library. 

5.  Our  class  elect  officers  each  year  on  the  first  Monday  in  October. 

6.  Mumps  are  sometimes  a  dangerous  disease. 

7.  Wasn't  you  proud  of  our  team  yesterday? 

8.  He  is  a  man  who  don't  take  any  interest  in  politics. 

9.  Have  either  of  you  solved  the  last  problem? 
10.  Each  of  them  have  been  absent  twice. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  253 

II 

Tn  the  following  sentences  supply  the  proper  person-and-number 
form  of  the  verb  and  explain  why  the  form  supplied  is  correct : 

1.  The  mob dispersed  with  tear  bombs. 

2.  Relaxation,  in  addition  to  good  food, improved  her  health. 

3.  Mother  belonged  to  that  large  class  of  women  who con- 
tinually sharing  other  people's  troubles. 

4.  A  part  of  his  crop destroyed  by  rain. 

5.  One  of  the  oldest  houses  in  the  village being  repaired. 

6.  The  sum  and  substance  of  the  company's  decision that  no 

indemnity  would  be  paid. 

7.  There only  a  small  congregation  at  church  Sunday. 

8.  you  present  at  the  class  reunion  ? 

9.  The  molasses too  thick  to  run  freely. 

10.  Either  you  or  he been  deceived. 

B.   Nouns  and  Pronouns 

147,  Case.  i.  Subject  of  a  finite  verb.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

1.  We  and  they  spent  last  vacation  at  the  same  camp. 

2.  She  and  I  have  many  friends  in  common. 

2,  Predicate  nominative.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  a  sub- 
jective complement  after  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

1.  He  remained  a  private  throughout  the  war. 

2.  Helen's  guests  for  the  week-end  were  Clara  and  I. 

3.  It  was  I  who  saw  him  fall. 

Note  i.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  that  stands  in  the  predicate  and,  in 
addition  to  completing  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  defines  or  describes 
the  subject  is  called  a  subjective  complement  (see  section  325,  2). 

Note  2.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  as  a 
predicate  nominative. 

Incorrect:  It  is  me.   That  was  her.   These  are  them. 
Correct:  It  is  I.  That  was  she.   These  are  they. 


254  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  After  than  and  as.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  following  than  or 
as  is  in  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case,  according  to  its 
construction  in  the  elliptical  clause  of  which  it  is  a  part. 

1.  John  is  more  courteous  than  Frank  [is  courteous]. 

2.  I  like  him  better  than  [I  hke]  her. 

4.  Object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition.  A  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

1.  Whom  did  you  meet  ? 

2.  Between  you  and  me,  I  think  he  is  wrong. 

5.  Subject  and  complement  of  an  infinitive.  A  noun  or  a 
pronoun  used  as  the  subject  or  as  the  predicate  complement  of 
an  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 

1.  They  beheved  me  to  be  him. 

2.  The  womafx  whom  they  thought  to  be  her  proved  her  innocence. 

Note.  In  sentences  in  which  the  infinitive  to  be  is  used  without  a 
subject,  the  predicate  complement  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

1.  Margaret  intends  to  be  a  nurse. 

2.  Who  am  I  supposed  to  be? 

6.  Appositives.  Appositive  nouns  and  pronouns  are  in  the 
same  case  as  the  word  with  which  they  are  in  apposition. 

1.  She  gave  her  guests,  Doris  and  me,  a  week-end  party. 

2.  They,  he  and  his  sister,  have  returned  to  college. 

7.  Possessive  wrongly  applied  to  inanimate  objects.  In  gen- 
eral, the  possessive  case  should  not  be  used  of  any  nouns  ex- 
cept those  denoting  persons  or  animals.  An  ^/-phrase  should 
be  used  of  inanimate  objects. 

1.  My  friend's  hair  is  brown. 

2.  The  dog's  collar  is  too  small. 

3.  The  cover  of  the  book  {not  the  book's  cover)  is  green. 

Note.  There  are  a  few  recognized  exceptions  to  this  rule,  such  as 
a  day's  outing,  a  hair's  breadth,  for  conscience'  sake,  the  law's  delay. 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMMAR  255 

8.  Possessive  wrongly  used  to  denote  the  object  of  an  action. 
The  possessive  of  a  noun  denoting  the  object  of  an  action  should 
be  avoided.  An  of-phrase  should  be  used  instead. 

Incorrect:    The  president's  inauguration  occurs  tomorrow. 
Correct:    The  inauguration  of  the  president  occurs  tomorrow. 

9.  Possessive  ivith  verbal  nouns.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used 
to  modify  a  verbal  noun  should  be  in  the  possessive  case. 

1.  Philip's  hearing  is  not  acute. 

2.  I  remember  his  asking  me  for  my  autograph. 

3.  Do  you  object  to  my  leaving  early  ? 

10.  Possessive  sign  wrongly  used.  Unlike  nouns,  personal 
and  relative  pronouns  require  no  possessive  si^n  to  indicate  the 
possessive  case :  ours,  yours,  his,  hers,  its,  theirs,  and  whose. 
Remember  that  it's  is  a  contraction  of  //  is,  and  that  who's  is  a 
contraction  of  who  is. 

Like  the  possessive  form  of  nouns,  the  possessives  one's,  no 
one's,  one  another's,  each  other's,  and  others'  are  correctly 
written  with  the  possessive  sign. 

Note.  The  possessive  whose  is  usually  restricted  to  objects  that  have 
life.  Of  which  is  used  of  things  without  life,  though  whose  is  sometimes 
employed  for  the  sake  of  euphony. 

1.  Mrs.  Ames  is  the  woman  whose  niece  you  met. 

2.  My  dog,  whose  name  is  Toby,  is  a  Scotch  terrier. 

3.  The  house,  the  gloom  of  which  oppressed  me,  had  been  the  family 
residence  for  three  centuries. 

148.  Number.  Avoid  making  the  singular  form  of  a  noun 
serve  at  the  same  time  as  both  singular  and  plural. 

Incorrect:  She  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  beau- 
tiful, woman  I  have  ever  seen. 

Correct:  She  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women  I  have  ever  seen, 
if  not  the  most  beautiful  woman 


2  56  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

149.  General  rule  of  agreement  for  relative  pronouns.  A 
relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  number, 
and  person,  but  its  case  is  dependent  upon  its  construction  in 
its  own  clause. 

As  to  the  genders  of  relative  pronouns,  bear  in  mind  the 
following:  who  is  either  masculine  or  feminine  and  should  be 
used  to  refer  to  persons  and  personified  objects ;  which  is 
either  masculine  or  feminine  when  used  to  refer  to  animals,  but 
neuter  when  otherwise  used ;  what  is  neuter ;  and  that,  as, 
and  but  ( =  that  not)  are  of  all  three  genders. 

Since  relative  pronouns  have  the  same  person-and-number 
form  for  all  three  persons  and  for  both  numbers,  their  person 
and  number  must  be  determined  in  each  case  by  noting  the 
person  and  number  of  the  antecedent. 

1.  It  is  I  who  am  suspected,  not  she. 

2.  We  have  sold  the  dogs  which  we  trained. 

3.  Did  she  hear  what  I  said  ? 

4.  There  is  no  one  here  but  knows  of  his  failure. 

5.  She  set  before  us  such  food  as  she  had. 

The  case  of  who  and  whoever  requires  close  attention.  The 
construction  of  each  relative  pronoun  in  its  own  clause  is  the 
only  means  of  determining  the  correct  inflectional  form  to 
be  used. 

1.  Nora  was  a  maid  who  we  thought  was  honest. 

2.  Marie  is  a  maid  whom  he  says  we  can  trust. 

3.  The  question  of  who  was  guilty  puzzled  us. 

4.  She  helped  whoever  was  in  distress. 

5.  Be  courteous  to  whomever  you  meet. 

150.  Reference  of  pronouns.  A  pronoun  should  have  as  its 
antecedent  a  particular  person,  animal,  or  thing,  and  this  ante- 
cedent should  be  a  definitely  expressed  noun  or  pronoun.  The 
reference  of  a  pronoun  to  its  antecedent  should  in  every  instance 
be  unmistakably  clear. 


CAUTION'S  IX  GR.\MMAR  257 

Incorrect:  Helen  told  Julia  that  she  was  mistaken. 

Correct:  Helen  said,  "Julia,  you  are  mistaken." 

Also  correct:  Helen  said,  'Julia,  I  am  mistaken." 

Incorrect:   I  tried  to  assist  him,  but  he  refused  it. 

Correct:   I  offered  him  my  assistance,  but  he  refused  it. 

Also  correct:   I  tried  to  assist  him,  but  he  refused  my  assistance. 

1.  Incorrect  reference  of  which.  Usually  the  relative  pro- 
noun which  should  not  be  made  to  refer  to  an  entire  clause  or 
sentence.  It  should  have  a  single  noun  (such  as  fact,  conclu- 
sion, decision,  act,  condition,  etc.)  as  its  antecedent.  Fre- 
quently it  is  advisable  to  avoid  the  use  of  which  by  employing 
some  other  construction. 

Incorrect:  He  made  up  his  mind  to  return  to  college,  which  surprised  me. 
Correct:  He  made  up  his  mind  to  return  to  college — a  decision  which 
surprised  me. 

Better:    His  decision  to  return  to  college  surprised  me. 

2.  Reference  to  an  unexpressed  antecedent.  Avoid  the  use 
of  a  pronoun  or  a  pronominal  expression  seeming  to  refer  to 
an  unexpressed  antecedent.  Use  the  implied  antecedent  instead 
of  the  pronoun. 

Incorrect:  He  is  a  bee-keeper  and  has  lately  acquired  several  large 
swarms  of  them. 

Correct:  He  is  a  bee-keeper  and  has  lately  acquired  several  large 
swarms  of  bees. 

Incorrect:  Cane  sugar  is  scarce,  because  that  crop  was  almost  a 
failure  last  year. 

Correct:  Cane  sugar  is  scarce,  because  the  sugar-cane  crop  was 
almost  a  failure  last  year. 

3.  Indefinite  use  of  it  and  they.  Except  in  such  impersonal 
expressions  as  it  rains,  it  is  cold,  it  seems,  the  use  of  it  without 
an  antecedent  should  be  avoided. 

Incorrect:  In  this  guidebook  it  says  that  the  castle  was  built  in  1370. 
Correct:  This  guidebook  says  that  the  castle  was  built  in  1370. 


25«  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Except  in  such  colloquial  expressions  as  they  say,  the  use  of 
they  without  an  antecedent  should  be  avoided. 

Incorrect:  They  have  many  interesting  customs  in  Japan. 
Correct:  The  Japanese  have  many  interesting  customs. 

4.  Indefinite  use  of  this,  that,  these,  and  those.  Avoid  the 
indefinite  use  of  this,  that,  these,  and  those  as  demonstrative 
adjectives. 

Incorrect:    My  aunt  is  one  of  those  prim  old  maids. 
Correct:   My  aunt  is  a  prim  old  maid. 

Note.  When  this,  that,  these,  or  those  modifies  a  noun  that  is  the 
antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun,  the  demonstrative  adjective  is  no 
longer  used  indefinitely. 

Correct:  My  aunt  is  one  of  those  prim  old  maids  who  cannot  endure  the 
slightest  disorder. 

"^""^      EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
errors  in  the  person,  number,  gender,  case,  or  reference  of  nouns 
and  pronouns : 

1.  The  contractor  employed  whomever  wanted  to  work. 

2.  She  is  younger  than  me. 

3.  I  discovered  the  forgetful  person  who  mislaid  my  book  to  be  I. 

4.  Do  you  object  to  me  attending  the  dance? 

5.  America's  discovery  occurred  in  1492. 

6.  To  her  nieces,  Alta  and  I,  Aunt  Jane  gave  her  rings. 

7.  Everyone  awaited  their  turn  at  the  cashier's  window. 

8.  Who,  may  I  ask,  do  you  wish  to  see? 

9.  That  is  him  standing  in  the  doorway. 

10.  I  was  tardy  yesterday,  which  embarrassed  me  greatly. 

11.  I  am  tired  of  reading  these  modern  plays. 

12.  Mother  told  sister  she  was  going  to  be  late. 

13.  They  have  too  many  rules  in  college  restraining  freshmen. 

14.  The  missionary  whom  we  thought  had  died  came  to  visit  us. 

15.  There  was  a  story  written  by  Jack  London  in  the  book  which 
I  read. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRi\MMAR  259 

16.  We  went  berrying  and  picked  nine  quarts  of  them. 

17.  During  her  illness  the  doctor  allowed  none  but  he  to  see  her. 

18.  Many  people  live  only  for  the  future,  which  is  a  great  mistake. 

19.  Father  advised  me  to  go  to  school,  but  I  disregarded  it. 

20.  This  is  one  of  the  warmest,  if  not  the  warmest,  day  that  we 
have  had  this  summer. 

21.  Thomas  A.  Edison  is  one  of  the  greatest  inventors  who  has  ever 
lived. 

22.  Each  of  us  took  our  places  in  the  line. 

23.  Do  you  approve  of  Julia  receiving  company  at  her  age  ? 

24.  Each  of  the  children  resemble  their  mother. 

25.  Hatching  chickens  by  artificial  incubation  is  very  satisfactory, 
for  they  are  simple  and  inexpensive  in  operation. 

C.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

151.  Expressions  of  comparison,  i.  Comparative  degree 
used  in  speaking  of  two  persons  or  things.  In  speaking  of  two 
persons  or  things,  avoid  using  the  superlative  degree  of  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb.    Use  the  comparative. 

Incorrect:  Sue  is  the  prettiest  of  the  twins. 

Correct:    Sue  is  the  prettier  of  the  twins. 

Incorrect:   Of  the  two  captives,  Morse  was  treated  most  cruelly. 

Correct:    Of  the  two  captives,  Morse  was  treated  more  cruelly. 

2.  Use  of  other  or  else  to  exclude  the  person  or  thing  com- 
pared. In  comparing  a  person  or  thing  with  the  rest  of  its 
class,  use  other  or  else,  as  the  meaning  requires,  with  the  com- 
parative degree  of  the  adjective  or  of  the  adverb  to  exclude 
the  person  or  thing  compared. 

Incorrect:  She  is  prettier  than  any  girl  in  school. 
Correct:  She  is  prettier  than  any  other  girl  in  school. 
Incorrect:  He  studies  harder  than  anyone  in  the  class. 
Correct:  He  studies  harder  than  anyone  else  in  the  class. 
Incorrect:  She  dresses  more  extravagantly  than  any  girl  in  school. 
Correct:  She   dresses   more   extravagantly  than  any   other   girl  in 
school. 


26o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  Use  of  all  with  the  superlative  degree.  With  the  superla- 
tive degree  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  comparing  a  person  or 
thing  with  the  rest  of  its  class,  all,  not  any,  should  be  regularly 
used  to  indicate  the  entire  class  with  which  the  person  or  thing 
is  compared. 

Incorrect:  She  is  the  prettiest  of  any  of  the  girls  in  school. 
Correct:   She  is  the  prettiest  of  all  the  girls  in  school. 
Better:  She  is  the  prettiest  girl  in  school. 

Incorrect:  He  spoke  most  distinctly  of  any  of  the  boys  on  the 
debating  team. 

Correct:  He  spoke  most  distinctly  of  all  the  boys  on  the  debating  team. 

4.  As  and  than  in  comparisons.  In  expressions  of  compari- 
son as  and  than  should  not  be  confused. 

Incorrect:  Today  is  as  warm  if  not  warmer  than  yesterday. 
Correct:   Today  is  as  warm  as  yesterday,  if  not  warmer  [than  yes- 
terday]. 

Incorrect:  He  is  older  but  not  so  gray  as  his  brother. 
Correct:  He  is  older  than  his  brother,  but  not  so  gray. 

A  comparison  should  be  fully  stated  before  a  qualifying  ex- 
pression is  added  to  the  sentence. 

5.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  having  only  an  absolute  meaning. 
A  few  adjectives  and  adverbs,  such  as  level,  round,  square, 
perfect,  faultless,  immaculate,  absolute,  unique,  perfectly,  ab- 
solutely, uniquely,  have  only  an  absolute  meaning  and  are 
therefore  incapable  of  comparison. 

Incorrect:  That  was  a  most  unique  experience. 
Correct:   That  was  a  unique  experience. 

Note.  Fairly  reputable  usage  permits  such  expressions  as  more  per- 
fect, most  perfect,  more  conclusive,  most  conclusive,  and  a  few  other 
similarly  illogical  comparative  and  superlative  forms. 

152.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  not  to  be  confused  in  use.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  proper  choice  of  an  adjective  or 
an  adverb  to  be  used  in  the  constructions  explained  below. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  261 

1.  Use  of  an  adverb  or  a  predicate  adjective  after  certain 
verbs.  After  such  verbs  as  stand,  look,  sound,  an  adjective  de- 
notes a  condition  or  a  (luality  of  the  subject,  whereas  an  adverb 
denotes  the  manner  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

1.  The  boy  looked  shy. 

2.  The  boy  looked  shyly  at  her. 

3.  His  voice  sounded  harsh. 

4.  His  voice  sounded  harshly  on  the  still  air. 

Note.  Such  verbs  as  be,  seem,  appear,  smell,  taste,  feel,  sound,  prove, 
grow,  turn,  and  remain  are  usually,  if  not  always,  followed  by  an 
adjective. 

1.  He  looks  well. 

2.  I  feel  ill. 

3.  She  seems  better. 

4.  The  fruit  tastes  sour. 

2.  Use  of  an  adverb  or  a  predicate  objective  after  cer- 
tain verbs.  After  several  verbs,  such  as  fasten,  keep,  and  hold, 
an  adjective  completes  the  predicate  and  denotes  a  condition 
or  a  quality  of  the  object  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  verb, 
whereas  an  adverb  denotes  the  manner  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb. 

1.  He  fastened  the  door  secure. 

2.  He  fastened  the  door  securely. 

3.  She  swept  the  floor  clean. 

4.  She  swept  the  floor  briskly. 

3.  An  adjective  not  to  be  used  as  an  adverb.  Avoid  using  an 
adjective  to  perform  the  function  of  an  adverb.  Do  not  form 
the  habit  of  using  real  for  very,  or  some  for  somewhat. 

Incorrect:  She  came  too  frequent. 
Correct:  She  came  too  frequently. 
Incorrect:  The  guide  woke  me  real  early. 
Correct:  The  guide  woke  me  very  early. 
Incorrect:  The  patient  feels  some  better. 
Correct:  The  patient  feels  somewhat  better. 


262  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

153.  Number  agreement  of  this  and  that.  Avoid  the  use  of 
the  plural  demonstrative  adjectives  these  and  those  with  such 
singular  nouns  as  kind,  sort,  and  species.  Use  this  and  that. 

Correct:  I  am  tired  of  this  kind  of  menu. 
Correct:  Do  you  like  that  sort  of  fish? 

Note  i.  Do  not  use  the  article  a  or  art  after  kind  of  or  sort  of  (see 
section  i86). 

Note  2.  With  the  plural  forms  kinds  and  sorts  the  plural  adjectives 
these  and  those  are  correctly  used,  as  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  These  kinds  of  foods  are  wholesome. 

2.  Those  sorts  of  books  should  be  suppressed. 


EXERCISES 


/ 


In  the  following  sentences  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
errors  in  the  use  of  adjectives  and  adverbs : 

1.  Frank  is  the  tallest  of  any  of  my  brothers. 

2.  Of  the  two  hats  I  bought  the  least  expensive. 

3.  She  writes  more  rapidly  but  not  so  accurately  as  her  sister. 

4.  Texas  is  larger  than  any  state  in  the  United  States. 

5.  Today  is  some  cooler  than  yesterday  was. 

6.  Do  you  hear  from  Grace  real  often  ? 

7.  I  predict  that  you  will  fail  most  absolutely. 

8.  Morley's  second  novel  is  as  good,  if  not  better  than,  his  first  one. 

9.  Please  try  to  write  more  legible. 

10.  I  have  always  disHked  flatterers  and  those  kind  of  people. 


II 

Write  sentences  in  which  you  use  appropriate  predicate  adjec- 
tives after  the  following  verbs:  seem,  appear,  smell,  taste,  sound, 
feel,  prove,  grow,  turn,  remain.  In  each  sentence  explain  why  an 
adjective,  not  an  adverb,  should  be  used. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAiVIMAR 


263 


III 

Write  sentences  in  which  you  use  appropriate  adjectives  as  ob- 
jective complements  after  the  following  verbs:  wrap,  raise,  nail, 
shoot,  paint,  bind,  fill.  Write  sentences  in  which  you  use  these 
same  verbs  followed  by  appropriate  adverbs  of  manner. 

D.  Verbs 

154.  Principal  parts  of  difficult  verbs.  The  principal  parts  of 
a  verb  are  (i)  the  first  person  singular  of  the  present  tense, 
(2)  the  first  person  singular  of  the  past  tense,  and  (3)  the  past 
participle.  The  principal  parts  of  the  following  difficult  verbs 
should  be  memorized,  and  should  be  used  in  short  model  sen- 
tences in  order  to  fix  them  in  mind. 


Present      Past  Past 

Tense      Tense     Participle 


Present      Past  Past 

Tense      Tense     Participle 


am  (be) 

was 

been 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

awake 

awoke 

awaked 

come 

came 

come 

awaked 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

bear 

bore 

borne 

dive 

dived 

dived 

born 

do 

did 

done 

begin 

began 

begun 

drag 

dragged 

dragged 

bend 

bent 

bent 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

bid 

bade 

bidden 

dream 

dreamed 

dreamed 

bid 

bid 

dreamt 

dreamt 

bite 

bit 

bit 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

bitten 

drive 

drove 

driven 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

drown 

drowned 

drowned 

blow 

blew 

blown 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt 

break 

broke 

broken 

dwelled 

dwelled 

bring 

brought 

brought 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

burn 

burned 

burned 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

burnt 

burnt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

burst 

burst 

burst 

flee 

fled 

fled 

catch 

caught 

caught 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

264 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


fly 

flew 

flown 

set 

set 

set 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

forgot 

shed 

shed 

shed 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

shine 

shone 

shone 

get 

got 

got 

show 

showed 

shown 

go 

went 

gone 

showed 

grow 

grew 

grown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

hang 

hung 

hung 

sing 

sang 

sung 

hang 

hanged 

hanged 

sit 

sat 

sat 

heat 

heated 

heated 

slay 

slew 

slain 

hold 

held 

held 

slide 

slid 

slid 

kneel 

knelt 

knelt 

slidden 

know 

knew 

known 

slink 

slunk 

slunk 

lay 

laid 

laid 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

lead 

led 

led 

spend 

spent 

spent 

lend 

lent 

lent 

spit 

spit 

spit 

lie 

lay 

lain 

spat 

spat 

lie 

lied 

lied 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

light 

lighted 

lighted 

strive 

strove 

striven 

lit 

lit 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

loose 

loosed 

loosed 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

lose 

lost 

lost 

swim 

swam 

swum 

mean 

meant 

meant 

take 

took 

taken 

pay 

paid 

paid 

tear 

tore 

torn 

prove 

proved 

proved 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

raise 

raised 

raised 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

read 

read 

read 

tread 

trod 

trod 

rid 

rid 

rid 

trodden 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

wake 

waked 

waked 

ring 

rang 

rung 

woke 

rise 

rose 

risen 

wear 

wore 

worn 

run 

ran 

run 

weave 

wove 

woven 

say 

said 

said 

weep 

wept 

wept 

see 

saw 

seen 

write 

wrote 

written 

155.  Six  troublesome  verbs.  Avoid  confusing  the  forms  of 
the  transitive  verbs  lay,  set,  and  raise  with  the  forms  of  the  in- 
transitive verbs  lie,  sit,  and  rise.  The  principal  parts  of  these 
six  verbs  should  be  accurately  memorized. 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMMAR  265 


Transitive  Verbs 

Intransitive  Verbs 

lay              laid             laid 

lie               lay              lain 

set             set              set 

sit               sat              sat 

raise            raised          raised 

rise             rose            risen 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  meanings  of  these  six  verbs  is 
the  only  reliable  guide  to  their  correct  use. 

lay,  to  put  or  deposit  something  in  place  ;  to  cause  a  person  or  a 

thing  to  lie. 
lie,  to  recline  ;  to  occupy  a  position,  or  be  in  a  state  of  rest. 
set,  to  place  or  put  something  in  position ;  to  cause  a  person  or  a 

thing  to  sit. 
sit,  to  assume  a  sitting-posture  ;   to  occupy  a  position,  or  be  in  a 

state  of  rest. 
raise,  to  lift  something,  or  cause  it  to  rise. 
rise,  to  ascend,  or  go  up ;  to  become  erect,  or  assume  an  upright 

posture. 

EXERCISES 

I      ^ 

In  the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  the  proper 
forms  of  lay  and  lie  and  give  the  reason  for  the  forms  used : 

1.  She  has in  that  position  for  two  days. 

2.  Mother the  baby  on  the  bed,  and  there  she  was when 

I  reentered  the  room. 

3.  His  uncle  was in  the  room  where  he  had for  three  years. 

4.  The  rain  has the  dust,  which  for  weeks  has  on  trees 

and  houses. 

5.  Tom  and  Jerry  were  the  new  water  pipe  while  the  rest 

of  us  were in  the  shade. 

6.  Let  sleeping  dogs . 

7.  When  we  had our  plans  before  him,  we  left. 

8.  Covers  had  been for  thirty  guests. 

9.  Where  have  you my  book  ? 

10.  All  night  my  book  had on  the  front  step,  where  I  had 

it  when  I  went  to  play  ball. 


266  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


II 

In  the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  the  proper 
forms  of  set  and  sit  and  give  reasons  for  the  forms  used : 

1.  Last  week  father  the  old  blue  hen  on  fifteen  eggs  out  in 

the  woodshed,  and  there  she  has  been ever  since. 

2.  I  have still  so  long  that  I  need  exercise. 

3.  In  the  midst  of  a  spacious  lawn  was a  large  white  house. 

4.  The  house back  from  the  road. 

5.  As  soon  as  we  had the  house  in  order,  we down  to  rest. 

6.  I  enjoy down  again  after out  plants  all  the  afternoon. 

7.  Do  you  think  that  this  coat well  ? 

8.  Often  I  have for  hours  Hstening  to  Uncle  Caleb's  stories. 

Ill 

In  the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  the  proper 
forms  of  raise  and  rise  and  give  reasons  for  the  forms  used : 

1.  When  I  had ,  I the  shades  of  both  windows. 

2.  We  shall the  flag  when  the  sun . 

3.  When  we ,  we  discovered  that  the  river  was 


4.  In  spite  of  an  abundant  supply  of  food,  prices  continue  to . 

5.  The  fermentation  of  the  yeast the  sponge. 

6.  The  dough  has to  the  top  of  the  pan. 

7.  The  man  across  the  aisle , his  hat,  and  offered  to 

the  window  for  me. 

8.  Do  you  think  that  the  wheat  will  after  such  a  beating  rain 

as  this? 

156.  Uses  of  shall  and  will,  should  and  would.  Observe  the 
following  rules  for  the  correct  use  of  the  auxiliaries  shall  and 
will,  should  and  would : 

I.  In  statements  of  simple  futurity.  To  represent  simple 
futurity,  use  shall  or  should  in  the  first  person  and  will  or 
would  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  both  singular  and 
plural.  The  following  scheme  should  be  memorized  and  the 
illustrative  sentences  carefully  studied: 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  267 

I  shall  (should)  we  shall  (should) 

you  will   (would)  you  will  (would) 

he  will  (would)  they  will  (would) 

1.  I  shall  be  seventeen  years  old  in  November. 

2.  We  shall  return  home  Thursday. 

3.  If  I  had  been  invited,  I  should  have  gone. 

4.  You  will  reach  your  destination  Friday,  I  suppose. 

5.  I  have  recently  read  a  novel  that  you  would  enjoy  reading. 

6.  He  will  be  surprised  to  see  you. 

7.  They  will  call  for  us  at  eight  o'clock. 

Note.  Will  is  used  in  the  second  and  third  persons  to  express  polite 
commands. 

1.  You  will  report  to  me  as  soon  as  you  have  returned. 

2.  He  will  deliver  this  letter  to  the  general  at  once. 

2.  In  statements  of  determination,  resolution,  desire,  or 
promise.  To  express  determination,  resolution,  desire,  or 
promise  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  use  will  or  would  in  the 
first  person  and  shall  or  should  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons, both  singular  and  plural.  The  following  scheme  should 
be  memorized  and  the  illustrative  sentences  carefully  studied : 

I  will  (would)  we  will  (would) 

you  shall  (should)  you  shall  (should) 

he  shall  (should)  they  shall  (should) 

1.  I  will  refuse  every  offer  of  compromise. 

2.  We  will  accompany  you  to  the  boat  if  you  wish. 

3.  You  shall  not  leave  this  house  tonight. 

4.  Were  you  my  child,  you  should  obey  me. 

5.  He  shall  pay  me  every  cent  he  owes. 

6.  They  shall  do  as  you  say. 

Note.  Shall  is  used  in  the  second  and  third  persons  to  express 
prophecy. 

1.  Thou  shalt  lower  to  his  level  day  by  day. 

2.  Your  young  men  shall  see  visions,  and  your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams. 


2  68  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  In  questions,  (i)  If  the  subject  is  in  the  first  person,  use 
shall  and  should,  except  in  repeating  a  question  addressed  to 
the  speaker. 

1.  Shall  I  see  you  at  the  reception?    {Answer:  Yes,  you  will  see  me.) 

2.  Shall  we  walk  or  ride?    {Answer:  We  shall  walk.) 

3.  Will  you  lend  me  the  book?  {Answer:  Will  I  lend  you  the 
book?    Indeed,  I  will.) 

(2)  If  the  subject  is  in  the  second  or  third  person,  use  the 
auxiliary  that  you  anticipate  in  the  answer.  The  auxiliary  used 
in  the  answer  should  be  chosen  according  to  the  rules  already 
given  for  statements. 

1.  Shall  you  attend  the  reception?    {Answer:    I  shall  .  .  .) 

2.  Will  you  meet  me  promptly  at  seven?    {Answer:    I  will  .  .  .) 

3.  Should  you  attend  college  if  you  had  the  money?  {Answer:  I 
should  .  .  .) 

4.  Would  you  go  if  you  were  in  my  place  ?    {A7iswer:   I  would  .  .  .) 

5.  Will  she  recover  ?    {Answer:    She  will  .  .  .) 

6.  Would  she  care  to  see  me?    {Answer:    She  would  .  .  .) 

7.  Shall  he  be  punished?    {Answer:    He  shall  .  .  .) 

4.  In  indirect  statements  and  indirect  questions.  ( i )  In  indi- 
rect statements  shall  and  will,  should  and  would,  should  agree 
with  the  forms  used  in  the  corresponding  direct  statement,  ex- 
cept that  when  the  first  person  with  shall  or  should  in  the 
direct  statement  becomes  the  second  or  third  person  in  the 
indirect  statement,  shall  or  should  is  retained,  and  that  when 
the  second  person  with  will  and  would  in  the  direct  statement 
becomes  the  first  person  in  the  indirect  statement,  will  and 
would  are  changed  to  shall  and  should. 

1.  My  friend  said,  "I  will  go."  (Direct  statement) 

2.  My  friend  said  he  would  go.    (Indirect  statement) 

3.  My  friend  says,  "I  shall  go."    (Direct  statement) 

4.  My  friend  says  he  shall  go.    (Indirect  statement) 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMMAR  269 

5.  My  friend  says,  "You  will  be  late."    (Direct  statement) 

6.  My  friend  says  I  shall  be  late.    (Indirect  statement) 

7.  My  friend  said,  "You  will  be  late."    (Direct  statement) 

8.  My  friend  said  I  should  be  late.    (Indirect  statement) 

(2)  In  indirect  questions  retain  the  auxiliary  used  in  the 
direct  question,  unless  a  change  of  tense  {shall  to  should,  will 
to  would)  be  necessary. 

1.  What  shall  I  tell  her?    (Direct  question) 

2.  You  ask  me  what  you  shall  tell  her.    (Indirect  question) 

3.  He  asked  me  what  he  should  tell  her.    (Indirect  question) 

4.  Will  you  tell  me  ?    (Direct  question) 

5.  You  ask  me  whether  I  will  tell  you.    (Indirect  question) 

6.  He  asked  me  whether  I  would  tell  him.    (Indirect  question) 

5.  Use  of  would  to  express  a  wish.  Would  is  often  used  to 
express  a  wish. 

1.  Would  that  I  were  there  ! 

2.  Would  that  he  had  told  us  earlier ! 

6.  Use  of  would  to  express  customary  or  habitual  action. 
Would  is  frequently  used  in  all  three  persons  to  indicate  cus- 
tomary or  habitual  action. 

1.  Every  day  we  would  go  swimming. 

2.  About  six  o'clock  each  evening  you  would  see  a  long  line  of  hungry 
tourists  waiting  for  the  first  stroke  of  the  gong. 

3.  He  would  often  read  a  new  novel  through  at  one  sitting. 

7.  Use  of  should  for  ought.  Should  is  very  frequently  used 
in  all  three  persons  as  a  synonym  of  ought  to  express  duty, 
obligation,  propriety,  or  expectation. 

1.  I  should  write  her  a  letter  of  condolence. 

2.  You  should  be  more  considerate. 

3.  He  should  have  written  us  that  he  was  coming. 

4.  We  should  arrive  at  camp  before  sunset. 

Note.  Avoid  such  vulgarisms  as  should  ought  and  had  ought. 


2  70  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

8.  Use  of  shall  and  should  in  provisional  statements.  Shall 
and  should  are  used  in  all  three  persons  in  dependent  clauses 
that  make  provisional  statements. 

1.  If  I  should  change  my  mind,  I  would  notify  you. 

2.  Should  you  meet  her,  would  you  speak  to  her  ? 

3.  An  official  who  should  betray  such  a  trust  would  be  removed  from 
office. 

EXERCISES 


In  the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  either  shall 
or  "mil,  according  to  the  rules  given  above,  and  state  your  reason 
for  the  use  of  each  auxiliary : 

1.  They not  impose  on  my  generosity  any  longer. 

2.  I  tell  the  doctor  that  you  are  waiting? 

3.  you  inform  the  postman  of  my  change  of  address  ? 

4.  I drown ;  no  one rescue  me. 

5.  Miss  Ames,  you give  the  patient  one  capsule  every  hour. 

6.  Before  you  die  you see  that  I  am  right. 

7.  I  protect  you  ?    Why,  certainly. 

8.  You not  punish  an  innocent  man. 

9.  I  see  you  again  before  you  sail  ? 

10.  When we  three  meet  again  ? 

11.  Our  friends be  surprised  to  hear  the  news. 

12.  Generations  as  yet  unborn cherish  the  spot  where  we  are 

now  standing. 

13.  We never  have  a  truer  friend  than  Cranston. 

14.  You now  prepare  to  hand  in  your  papers. 

15.  I not  attempt  to  excuse  myself. 

16.  Julia  and  I enter  college  in  September. 

17.  you  and  your  sister  return  to  school  this  autumn  ? 

18.  she  forgive  me  for  my  stupidity  ? 

19.  If  you lend  me  your  dictionary,  I return  it  early  in  the 

morning. 

20.  My  mother  says  that  we  be  tardy,  but  I  think  that  our 

teacher excuse  us  if  you use  your  winning  smile  when  you 

explain  why  we  are  late. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  271 

II 

In  the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  either  should 
or  would,  according  to  the  rules  given  above,  and  state  your  reason 
for  the  use  of  each  auxiliary : 

1.  I ask  for  more  time  if  I  were  you. 

2.  I  tell  him  the  whole  wretched  story  ? 

3.  Do  you  suppose  that  he believe  me  ? 

4.  What you  do  if  you  were  in  my  place  ? 

5.  If  I  had  the  book,  you have  it. 

6.  you  be  disappointed  if  I  were  not  to  come  ? 

7.  you  accept  a  position  as  stenographer  in  our  firm  ? 

8.  They willingly  help  us  if  they  could. 

9.  They  be  thankful  for  their  good  health. 

10.  that  I  had  never  taken  the  risk  ! 

11.  If  I tell  you  the  truth,  you  believe  me  ? 

12.  In  the  evening  we sit  on  the  lawn  and  watch  the  fireflies. 

13.  They not  listen  to  our  warning. 

14.  He  promised  his  mother  that  he not  go  swimming. 

15.  She  reminded  him  that  he come  home  early. 

Ill 

Write  twenty  sentences  illustrating  the  various  proper  uses  of 
shall,  will,  should,  and  would.  In  each  sentence  be  sure  that  the 
auxiliary  used  is  the  correct  one. 

157.  Additional  cautions  regarding  tense,  i.  Present  tense 
used  in  the  statement  of  a  general  truth.  A  statement  that  is 
permanently  true  should  be  expressed  in  the  present  tense. 

1.  Though  ancienc  peoples  believed  that  the  earth  was  flat,  Magellan 
proved  that  it  is  round. 

2.  At  a  very  early  age  I  learned  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

2.  Past  tense  wrongly  used  for  past- perfect  tense.  Avoid 
using  the  past  tense  where  the  past-perfect  tense  is  logically 
required. 


2  72  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Incorrect:  I  attended  college  only  two  months  when  I  was  forced  to 
withdraw  to  help  father. 

Correct:  I  had  attended  college  only  two  months  when  I  was  forced 
to  withdraw  to  help  father. 

3.  Perfect  infinitive  incorrectly  used  for  present  infinitive. 
Avoid  using  a  perfect  infinitive  unless  it  designates  an  action 
completed  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  principal  verb. 

Incorrect:   I  should  have  liked  to  have  met  your  mother. 
Correct:   I  should  have  liked  to  meet  your  mother. 
Incorrect:  I  intended  to  have  written  to  you. 
Correct:  I  intended  to  write  to  you. 

Note.  With  ought  the  perfect  infinitive  is  properly  used. 
Correct:  I  ought  to  have  warned  you  of  the  danger. 

4.  Present  participle  incorrectly  used  for  perfect  participle 
or  past  tense.  Avoid  using  a  present  participle  unless  it  desig- 
nates an  action  going  on  at  the  same  time  as  the  action  indi- 
cated by  the  principal  verb. 

Incorrect:  Leaving  his  home  at  an  early  age,  Joyce  had  lived  a  life 
of  hardship. 

Correct:  Having  left  his  home  at  an  early  age,  Joyce  had  lived  a  life 
of  hardship. 

Incorrect:  I  completed  the  grammar  school  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
entering  high  school  the  next  year. 

Correct:  I  completed  the  grammar  school  at  the  age  of  eleven  and 
entered  high  school  the  next  year. 

5.  Past  participle  incorrectly  used  for  the  past  tense.  Avoid 
the  crude  error  of  using  the  past  participle  for  the  past  tense. 

Incorrect:   Then  Mary  begun  to  cry. 
Correct:   Then  Mary  began  to  cry. 
Incorrect:  We  sung  our  school  song. 
Correct:   We  sang  our  school  song. 

6.  Confusion  of  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  in  the 
formation  of  the  perfect  tenses.  Avoid  the  crude  error  of  using 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  273 

the  past-tense  form  of  the  verb  instead  of  the  past  participle  in 
the  formation  of  the  perfect  tenses. 

Incorrect:   It  had  began  to  rain  before  we  left. 
Correct:   It  had  begun  to  rain  before  we  left. 
hicorrect:    The  bell  has  rang. 
Correct:   The  bell  has  rung. 

158.  Uses  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  special  subjunctive 
forms  be  and  u^crc  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
corresponding  indicative  forms  in  the  following  uses  of  the 
subjunctive  mood : 

1.  To  express  a  wish.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  to  ex- 
press a  wish. 

1.  Peace  be  to  his  ashes ! 

2.  0  mat  she  were  here ! 

2.  To  indicate  uncertainty,  improbability,  or  a  condition 
contrary  to  fact.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  to  indicate 
uncertainty,  improbability,  or  a  condition  contrary  to  fact. 

1.  If  he  be  an  honest  man,  I  am  no  judge  of  men. 

2.  If  Thornton  be  elected  captain,  we  shall  have  a  strong  team. 

3.  If  I  were  you,  I  should  not  hesitate  a  moment  in  accepting  the 
position. 

4.  I  wish  that  mother  were  here. 

Note.  Avoid  such  crude  errors  as  if  I  was  you,  if  he  was  iti  my 
place,  and  similar  illiterate  expressions. 

EXERCISES 
I 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
errors  in  tense  and  mood : 

1.  Grandfather  often  assured  me  that  youth  was  the  best  period 
in  a  person's  life. 


274  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  I  had  sank  for  the  second  time  before  I  was  rescued. 

3.  O  that  I  was  at  home  ! 

4.  On  graduation  day  I  tried  to  recall  how  I  spent  my  four  years 
in  college. 

5.  I  swum  two  miles  yesterday. 

6.  If  he  was  not  my  guardian,  I  might  ask  his  advice. 

7.  Roberts  was  our  best  track  athlete  last  year,  winning  more  points 
than  all  the  other  men  on  the  team. 

8.  Losing  his  fortune  in  an  investment  in  oil,  he  had  begun  life  anew 
at  the  age  of  fifty. 

9.  I  should  not  give  the  matter  another  thought  if  I  was  you. 

10.  Astronomers  long  ago  proved  that  the  sun  was  the  center  of 
our  planetary  system. 

II 

Write  sentences  using  (i)  the  past  tense  and  (2)  the  past- 
perfect  tense  of  the  following  verbs:  begin,  break,  burst,  choose, 
come,  do,  drink,  eat,  jail,  freeze,  ride,  ring,  run,  see,  sing,  sink, 
speak,  swim,  take,  tear,  wear. 

E.   Participles,  Verbal  Nouns,  and  Infinitives 

159.  Reference  of  participles.  A  participle,  like  a  pronoun, 
must  refer  accurately  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  on  which  it  de- 
pends for  its  meaning.  The  substantive  must  be  within  the 
sentence  containing  the  participle,  and  the  reference  of  the 
participle  must  be  logical  and  immediately  apparent,  A 
participle  that  has  no  expressed  substantive  to  which  it  can 
properly  refer,  or  that  has  two  substantives  to  which  it  may 
ambiguously  refer,  is  called  a  dangling  participle.  (See  sec- 
tion 121,  rule  2.) 

Do  not  use  a  participial  phrase  to  introduce  a  sentence  or  a 
clause  unless  it  logically  modifies  the  subject  of  the  sentence 
or  clause. 

Incorrect:  Being  in  a  cage,  I  was  not  afraid  of  the  lion. 
Correct:  Since  the  lion  was  in  a  cage,  I  was  not  afraid  of  him. 
Correct:  The  lion,  being  in  a  cage,  did  not  frighten  me. 


CAUTIONS  IN  GRAMMAR  27s 

Incorrect:  Having  returned  from  a  visit  to  my  aunt,  my  parents 
welcomed  me  home. 

Correct:  When  I  returned  from  a  visit  to  my  aunt,  my  parents 
welcomed  me  home. 

Correct:  Having  returned  from  a  visit  to  my  aunt,  I  was  welcomed 
home  by  my  parents. 

Notice  that  dangling  participles  may  be  avoided  either  by 
using  a  dependent  clause  instead  of  a  participial  phrase  or  by 
using  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun to  which  the  participal  logically  refers. 

Do  not  end  a  sentence  with  a  participial  phrase  that  is  made 
to  refer  to  a  vaguely  implied  substantive  or  to  the  entire 
thought  of  the  preceding  sentence  or  clause. 

Incorrect:  The  water  was  impure,  caused  by  bad  drainage. 

Correct:   The  impurity  of  the  water  was  caused  by  bad  drainage. 

Correct:   The  water  was  impure  as  the  result  of  bad  drainage. 

bicorrect:  He  speaks  fluently  many  languages,  thus  aiding  him  in 
his  travels. 

Correct:  He  speaks  fluently  many  languages ;  this  ability  aids  him 
in  his  travels. 

Correct:  His  ability  to  speak  fluently  many  languages  aids  him  in 
his  travels. 

160.  Reference  of  verbal  nouns.  Do  not  use  a  verbal  noun  to 
introduce  a  sentence  or  clause  unless  it  logically  refers  to  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause. 

Incorrect:  After  inspecting  my  passport,  I  was  permitted  to  go  on 
board  the  boat. 

Incorrect:   In  alighting  from  the  car,  my  ankle  vras  turned. 

Errors  of  this  kind  may  be  avoided  by  using  a  clause  instead 
of  a  verbal  noun  or  by  using  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or 
clause  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  the  verbal  noun  logically 
refers. 

Correct:  After  my  passport  had  been  inspected,  I  was  permitted  to 
go  on  board  the  boat. 


2  76    ^  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Correct:  After  inspecting  my  passport,  the  official  permitted  me  to 
go  on  board  the  boat. 

Correct:   In  alighting  from  the  car,  I  turned  my  ankle. 
Correct:  As  I  ahghted  from  the  car,  I  turned  my  ankle. 

161.  Reference  of  infinitives.  Do  not  use  an  infinitive  or  an 
infinitive  phrase  to  introduce  a  sentence  or  clause  unless  it 
logically  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause. 

Incorrect:   To  succeed,  the  process  must  be  understood. 

Correct:   To  succeed,  you  must  understand  the  process. 

Incorrect:  To  escape  the  heat,  the  trip  should  be  made  in  April  or 
October. 

Correct:  To  escape  the  heat,  you  should  make  the  trip  in  April 
or  October. 

162.  Split  infinitives.  Avoid  placing  an  adverbial  modifier 
between  an  infinitive  and  its  sign  to. 

Incorrect:   The  boat  seemed  to  hardly  move. 
Correct:   The  boat  seemed  hardly  to  move. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
errors  in  the  reference  of  participles,  verbal  nouns,  and  infinitives : 

1.  He  has  a  large  irrigation  plant,  thus  assuring  himself  of  a  good 
crop  every  year. 

2.  Turning  the  corner  suddenly,  the  motor  cycle  threw  him  down. 

3.  To. obtain  good  seats,  reservations  should  be  made  early. 

4.  Having  recovered  from  his  illness,  the  firm  gave  him  his  former 
position. 

5.  He  is  blind,  caused  by  a  wound  that  he  received  during  the  war. 

6.  After  examining  me  and  giving  me  a  prescription,  I  paid  the 
physician  and  left. 

7.  Coming  out  of  the  door,  Forbes  met  a  man  as  he  entered. 

8.  To  be  sure  that  the  dress  will  fit,  a  chart  and  form  should  be  used. 

9.  Coming  unexpectedly  as  it  did,  she  was  surprised  at  her  election. 
10.  Being  a  guest,  we  were  surprised  at  his  rudeness. 


CAUTIONS  IX  GRAMMAR  277^ 

11.  Upon  entering  the  hall,  loud  applause  greeted  him. 

12.  To  play  on  the  football  team,  your  scholastic  record  must  be 
good. 

13.  Having  met  her  once  before,  she  easily  recognized  me. 

14.  He  approached,  and,  extending  his  hand,  she  took  it. 

15.  In  studying  for  his  examination  his  eyes  were  strained. 


F.  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions    i_y 

163.  Prepositions,  i.  Object  of  a  preposition.  A  noun  or  a 
pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition  should  be  in  the 
objective  case  (see  section  147,  rule  4). 

2.  Between  and  among.  Between  should  be  used  in  speaking 
of  two  persons  or  things  ;  among,  in  speaking  of  more  than  two. 

3.  Ending  a  sentence  with  a  preposition.  Since  the  end  of  a 
sentence  is  an  emphatic  position,  it  should  usually  be  reserved 
for  a  more  emphatic  word  than  a  preposition.  This  is  the  chief 
reason  why  reputable  writers  try  to  avoid  placing  a  preposition 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Often,  in  such  a  sentence  as  the  fol- 
lowing, the  word  preceding  the  preposition  receives  the  neces- 
sary stress  even  when  the  preposition  comes  last. 

America  is  a  good  country  to  live  in,  a  good  country  to  live  for, 
and  a  good  country  to  die  for. 

164.  Conjunctions.  Coordinate  conjunctions  should  be  used 
to  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  are  coordinate  in 
rank  and  alike  in  grammatical  form  (see  sections  120,  rule  3, 
and  121,  rule  4;  see  also  section  172). 

Avoid  the  use  of  like  as  a  conjunction  to  connect  two  clauses. 
Use  as  or  as  if. 

Incorrect:  I  did  the  work  like  he  wanted  it  done. 
Correct:   I  did  the  work  as  he  wanted  it  done. 
Incorrect:   She  cared  for  the  child  like  it  was  her  own. 
Correct:   She  cared  for  the  child  as  if  it  were  her  own. 


2  78  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Note.  Like  is  correctly  used  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  that  is  not 
the  subject  of  a  dependent  clause. 

1.  He  stands  like  a  soldier  at  attention. 

2.  The  wind  blew  like  a  hurricane. 

G.  Miscellaneous  Grammatical  Cautions 

165.  Improper  omission  of  words.  No  essential  word,  unless 
it  is  clearly  and  correctly  implied,  should  be  omitted  from  a 
sentence. 

I.  Omission  of  a  verb.  Do  not  omit  a  principal  verb  in  any 
part  of  a  sentence  unless  the  form  expressed  elsewhere  in  the 
sentence  is  grammatically  correct  and  clearly  implied  at  the 
point  where  it  is  omitted. 

Incorrect:   She  has  not  and  never  will  recover. 
Correct:   She  has  not  recovered  and  never  will  recover. 
Incorrect:  I  have  not  written,  nor  am  I  going  to. 
Correct:   I  have  not  written,  nor  am  I  going  to  write. 

An  auxiliary  or  a  copulative  verb  should  not  be  omitted  un- 
less the  form  expressed  earlier  in  the  sentence  is  grammatically 
correct  and  clearly  implied  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence. 

Incorrect:    The  house  was  painted  and  the  rooms  papered  again. 

Correct:  The  house  was  painted  and  the  rooms  were  papered  again. 

Incorrect:   The  garden  has  been  prepared  and  all  the  plants  set  out. 

Correct:  The  garden  has  been  prepared  and  all  the  plants  have  been 
set  out. 

Incorrect:  The  first  speaker  was  entertaining,  but  the  others  ex- 
tremely boresome. 

Correct:  The  first  speaker  was  entertaining,  but  the  others  were 
extremely  boresome. 

Note.  A  single  form  of  the  verb  be  should  not  be  made  to  serve 
as  a  copula  and  an  auxiliary  at  the  same  time. 

Incorrect:  Miss  Agnew  was  a  successful  teacher  and  loved  by  all  her  pupils. 
Correct:  Miss  Agnew  was  a  successful  teacher  and  was  loved  by  all  her 
pupils. 


CAUTIOXS  IX  GRAMMAR  279 

2.  Omission  of  an  article  or  of  a  demonstrative  or  possessive 
adjective..  Do  not  omit  an  article  or  a  demonstrative  or  pos- 
sessive adjective  before  any  noun  in  a  series  unless  the  nouns 
designate  the  same  person  or  thinj^  or  are  self-distinguishing. 

Incorrect:  The  three  officers  of  our  class  are  the  president,  vice 
president,  and  secretary  and  treasurer. 

Correct:  The  three  officers  of  our  class  are  the  president,  the  vice 
president,  and  the  secretary  and  treasurer. 

Correct:   Last  week  I  was  the  maid,  cook,  and  nurse  for  our  family. 

Correct:   His  father  and  mother  were  born  in  Scotland. 

3.  Omission  of  a  preposition.  Do  not  omit  a  preposition  that 
is  either  grammatically  or  idiomatically  necessary  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

Incorrect:   I  have  no  understanding  or  interest  in  golf. 
Correct:   I  have  no  understanding  of,  or  interest  in,  golf. 
Better:   I  have  no  understanding  of  golf  and  no  interest  in  it. 

Note.  In  formal  composition  many  adverbial  phrases  of  time,  place, 
and  manner  regularly  require  a  preposition. 

Incorrect:  I  never  saw  him  act  that  way  before. 
Correct:  I  never  saw  him  act  in  that  way  before. 
Incorrect:  I  can  be  content  any  place. 
Correct:  I  can  be  content  in  any  place. 
Correct:  I  can  be  content  anywhere. 

4.  Omission  of  the  subordinate  conjunction  that,  (i)  In 
formal  composition  the  subordinate  conjunction  that  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  expressed  at  the  beginning  of  a  noun  clause  that 
follows  a  verb  of  saying,  knowing,  thinking,  feeling,  perceiv- 
ing, etc. 

Incorrect:  Do  you  realize  by  neglecting  your  present  opportunities 
you  are  handicapping  yourself  for  life  ? 

Correct:  Do  you  realize  that  by  neglecting  your  present  opportuni- 
ties you  are  handicapping  yourself  for  life? 


2  8o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

(2)  In  formal  writing  that  should  not  be  omitted  after  so 
in  the  connective  so  that  introducing  a  clause  of  purpose  or  of 
result. 

Incorrect:   The  storm  raged  so  violently  no  one  slept. 
Correct:   The  storm  raged  so  violently  that  no  one  slept. 

5.  Omission  of  other  subordinate  conjunctions.  Before  an 
introductory  participial  phrase  that  is  the  equivalent  of  a  de- 
pendent clause  a  subordinate  conjunction  is  usually  required. 

Incorrect:   Studying  my  lessons,  I  went  to  sleep. 
Correct:  While  studying  my  lessons,  I  went  to  sleep. 
Incorrect:   Discouraged  by  his  failure,  he  did  not  give  up. 
Correct:   Though  discouraged  by  his  failure,  he  did  not  give  up. 

6.  Omission  of  the  subject  of  a  dependent  clause.  Do  not 
omit  the  subject  of  a  dependent  clause  unless  the  same  word 
serves  properly  as  the  subject  of  both  the  dependent  and  the 
independent  clause. 

Incorrect:    When  a  small  boy  my  father  married  again. 
Correct:   When  I  was  a  small  boy,  my  father  married  again. 
Correct:  While  still  a  youth,  I  resolved  to  become  a  missionary. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  all  words  that  have  been  im- 
properly omitted  (see  sections  151  and  186)  and  explain  why  the 
words  that  you  have  added  are  necessary : 

1.  We  loved  Aunt  Clara  better  than  anybody. 

2.  Traveling  is  so  expensive  nowadays. 

3.  The  room  was.  swept  and  the  rugs  placed  in  order. 

4.  Conroy  had  been  a  bank  president  and  trusted  by  everybody. 

5.  He  has  acted  just  as  anyone  would. 

6.  I  have  no  respect  or  confidence  in  such  a  man. 

7.  We  applied  early  so  we  might  secure  desirable  seats. 

8.  Waiting  for  the  train,  I  read  a  magazine. 


CAUTION'S  TX  GRAMMAR  281 

9.  I  have  missed  mother  more  than  you. 

10.  We  have  always,  and  always  shall  have,  high  standards  oi 
honesty. 

11.  He  knew  in  his  condition  he  could  not  live  very  long. 

12.  A  doctor,  interne,  and  nurse  stood  by  my  bed. 

13.  The  Morelands  are  such  refined  people. 

14.  While  I  was  home  I  looked  every  place  for  my  fountain  pen. 

15.  A  new^  constitution  has  been  drawn  up  and  new  by-laws  prepared. 

166.  Double  subjects  and  double  objects.  In  speech,  as  well 
as  in  writing,  avoid  the  use  of  double  subjects  and  double  ob- 
jects. Only  illiterate  and  careless  persons  use  such  expressions 
as  the  following: 

1.  My  uncle,  he  went  home  yesterday. 

2.  This  paper,  it  says  Lowry  was  elected. 

3.  That  money  you  gave  me,  I  lost  it. 

167.  Double  negatives.  Do  not  use  in  the  same  sentence  two 
or  more  negative  words  unless  they  are  coordinate.  Avoid 
using  hardly,  scarcely,  only,  and  but  (  =  only)  with  a  negative. 
Guard  against  such  double-negative  e.xpressions  as  can't  hardly, 
couldn't  scarcely,  hadn't  only,  cannot  help  but,  etc.  Use  in- 
stead can  hardly,  could  scarcely,  had  only,  cannot  help,  etc. 

Incorrect:    I  can't  hardly  realize  that  Christmas  is  here. 
Correct:   I  can  hardly  realize  that  Christmas  is  here. 
Incorrect:    I  couldn't  scarcely  understand  the  child. 
Correct:   I  could  scarcely  understand  the  child. 
Incorrect:   I  hadn't  met  her  only  once. 
Correct:   1  had  met  her  only  once. 
Incorrect:   I  cannot  help  but  sympathize  with  her. 
Correct:   I  cannot  help  sympathizing  with  her. 

168.  When  and  where  clauses  wrongly  used.  Do  not  use  a 
clause  introduced  by  when  or  where  in  place  of  a  predicate 
noun.  Be  particularly  on  your  guard  against  this  error  when 
you  are  stating  a  definition. 


282  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Incorrect:  Inflection  is  where  you  change  the  form  of  a  word  to  indi- 
cate a  change  in  its  meaning. 

Correct:  Inflection  is  a  change  of  form  in  a  word  to  indicate  a  change 
in  its  meaning. 

Incorrect:  Narration  is  when  you  relate  an  experience  or  an  event 
to  someone  else. 

Better:  Narration  is  the  relating  of  an  experience  or  an  event  to 
someone  else. 

169.  Because  clause  wrongly  used.  Do  not  attempt  to  make 
an  adverbial  clause  introduced  by  because  perform  the  function 
of  a  noun  clause  either  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  or  as  a  predicate 
nominative.  Do  not  say  ''The  reason  is  because"  etc.  Say 
''The  reason  is  that"  etc. 

Incorrect:   Because  your  intentions  were  good  proves  nothing. 

Correct:   The  fact  that  your  intentions  were  good  proves  nothing. 

Incorrect:  The  reason  he  failed  in  his  examination  was  because  he 
did  not  study. 

Correct:  The  reason  he  failed  in  his  examination  was  that  he  did 
not  study. 

Note.  A  clause  introduced  by  because  is  correctly  used  as  an  ad- 
verbial clause  of  cause  or  reason. 

Correct :  He  failed  because  he  did  not  study. 

II.    Special  Cautions  in  Sentence  Structure 

170.  The  period  fault.  The  period  fault  consists  in  using  a 
period  to  set  off  a  phrase  or  a  subordinate  clause  as  if  it  w^ere  a 
complete  sentence.  Such  a  detached  fragment  of  a  sentence, 
since  it  is  dependent  on  some  vi^ord  outside  itself,  cannot  stand 
alone  or  express  a  complete  thought.  In  most  instances  the 
period  fault  is  the  result  of  carelessness.  The  writer  thought- 
lessly places  a  period  where,  perhaps,  a  comma  or  a  semicolon 
is  required.  He  then  begins  the  next  word  with  a  capital  letter 
and  places  a  second  period  after  the  detached  fragment. 


CAUTIONS  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE     28,3 

In  our  informal  everyday  speech  we  employ  many  incom- 
plete sentences.  In  all  writing,  however,  we  should  carefully 
avoid  the  period  fault,  which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  errors 
in  composition  that  we  can  commit  (see  section  115,  and  re- 
view the  exercise  included  in  it ;  see  also  section  120,  rule  2,  and 
section  131). 

Incorrect:  Dalton  sacrificed  everything.  His  one  aim  being  the  at- 
tainment of  his  purpose. 

Correct:  Dalton  sacrificed  everything,  his  one  aim  being  the  attain- 
ment of  his  purpose. 

Incorrect:  He  assured  me  that  the  attempt  was  useless.  That  better 
men  than  I  had  failed. 

Correct:  He  assured  me  that  the  attempt  was  useless — that  better 
men  than  I  had  failed. 

Incorrect:  I  was  surprised  to  learn  of  his  prejudice.  Because  he  had 
heretofore  been  very  liberal  in  his  views. 

Correct:  I  was  surprised  to  learn  of  his  prejudice,  because  he  had 
heretofore  been  very  liberal  in  his  views. 

Note.  Setting  off  an  elliptical  independent  clause  as  a  sentence  does 
not  constitute  a  period  fault.  In  replying  to  a  question  we  may  rightly 
use  such  elliptical  sentences  as  the  following :  Yes.  When  ?  By  all 
means.  Certainly.  Surely  not.  Very  well,  then.  Not  now.  Good-by.  In 
each  of  these  expressions  the  omitted  words  can  be  accurately  supplied 
from  the  question  or  statement  that  has  immediately  preceded  it. 

"Do  you  think  that  I  should  go  to  college  ?"  I  asked. 

"By  all  means  [you  should  go  to  college],"  my  friend  replied. 

171.  The  comma  fault.  The  use  of  a  comma  in  place  of  a 
period,  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  dash  is  termed  the  comma 
fault.  This  error  is  fully  as  serious  as  the  period  fault.  Both 
errors  are  to  be  carefully  guarded  against.  The  person  who  is 
guilty  of  either  of  them  proves  that  he  does  not  yet  know  what 
constitutes  a  sentence.  (See  section  128,  rule  7,  and  the  caution 
that  follows  it;  see  also  section  129,  rule  i,  and  section  120, 
rule  I.) 


284  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Incorrect:  I  found  him  asleep  in  his  bed,  I  had  not  heard  him  when 
he  entered. 

Correct:  I  found  him  asleep  in  his  bed.  I  had  not  heard  him  when 
he  entered. 

Incorrect:  Hansoii  always  did  his  work  a  little  better  than  the  rest  of 
us,  that  was  what  won  him  his  promotion. 

Correct:  Hanson  always  did  his  work  a  little  better  than  the  rest  of 
us ;  that  was  what  won  him  his  promotion. 


X]  EXERCISE 

^  I      In  the  following  exercise  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all 
>tij    comma  faults  and  period  faults : 

1.  Our  guest  entertained  us  with  many  interesting  stories  of  adven- 
ture, he  had  been  a  newspaper  correspondent  during  the  World  War. 

2.  Art  museums  have  a  great  cultural  value,  they  furnish  the  pubHc 
an  opportunity  to  develop  a  better  aesthetic  taste. 

3.  A  freshman  has  much  to  learn.  Never  having  been  dependent  on 
himself  before.  And  not  knowing  how  to  study. 

4.  It  was  useless  to  argue  with  mother.  Though  Tom  always  tried 
to  convince  her  that  he  was  right. 

5.  This  is  an  excellent  novel.  One  which  I  am  sure  you  will  enjoy. 
Even  if  it  is  not  a  love  story. 

6.  Blair  won  first  place  in  three  events.  Thereby  enabling  us  to 
win  the  meet. 

7.  When  I  left,  I  offered  to  pay  him  for  his  hospitality,  he  refused 
to  accept  a  cent. 

8.  Toby  has  excellent  table  manners,  I  began  training  him  when 
he  was  a  small  kitten,  not  even  the  smell  of  fish  makes  him  forget  to 
be  polite. 

9.  As  night  approached  I  became  uneasy.  Because  father  had 
promised  to  return  before  six  o'clock. 

10.  The  manager  of  our  ranch  telephoned  father  that  bandits  had 
crossed  the  border  and  raided  several  towns.  And  that  they  had  killed 
one  of  the  rangers. 

11.  You  may  certainly  depend  on  seeing  me  in  Colorado  this  summer. 
If  I  can  get  away  from  this  large  family  of  mine.  But  not  on  keeping 
me  more  than  a  month. 


CAUTIONS  IN  SENTENCE  STRUC  TURE  285 

12.  I  cannot  understand  the  luck  that  some  people  have,  last  year 
our  cook  held  the  number  that  won  an  automobile,  and  now  her  uncle 
has  made  a  fortune  in  oil. 

172.  Faulty  coordination  in  compound  sentences.  The  fol- 
lowing cautions  regarding  the  construction  of  compound  sen- 
tences should  be  carefully  observed : 

1.  Unequal  sentence  elements  wrongly  coordinated.  Do  not 
attempt  to  form  a  compound  sentence  by  using  a  coordinate 
conjunction  to  join  a  phrase  or  a  dependent  clause  to  an  inde- 
pendent clause.  Omit  the  conjunction  and  express  the  thought 
properly  in  a  simple  or  complex  sentence ;  otherwise  form  a 
real  compound  sentence  by  recasting  the  dependent  sentence 
element  to  make  it  coordinate  with  the  other.  (See  section 
120,  rule  3,  and  section  121,  rule  4.) 

Incorrect:  Clark  failed  in  two  subjects,  and  thus  losing  his  posi- 
tion as  captain  of  the  team. 

Correct:  Clark  failed  in  two  subjects,  and  thus  he  lost  his  position 
as  captain  of  the  team.    (A  compound  sentence) 

Incorrect:  The  lecturer  is  a  nerve  specialist,  and  who  was  a  class- 
mate of  my  father's  in  college. 

Correct:  The  lecturer  is  a  nerve  specialist,  who  was  a  classmate  of 
my  father's  in  college.    (A  complex  sentence) 

Better:  The  lecturer,  who  was  a  classmate  of  my  father's  in  college, 
is  a  ner\'e  specialist. 

Incorrect:   Skiing  is  an  exciting  sport,  but  which  is  rather  dangerous. 

Correct:  Skiing  is  an  exciting  sport,  but  it  is  rather  dangerous.  (A 
compound  sentence) 

2.  Unequal  sentence-thoughts  wrongly  coordinated.  Avoid 
overworking  the  compound  sentence.  Do  not  form  the  careless 
habit  of  expressing  each  part  of  a  thought  as  an  independent 
clause  and  then  mechanically  linking  these  clauses  together  with 
and,  but,  or,  nor,  or  for.  Very  often  the  thought  imperfectly 
expressed  in  a  loosely  constructed  compound  sentence  could 
be  much  better  expressed  in  a  complex  or  simple  sentence. 


2  86  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Subordinate  portions  of  the  sentence-thought  should  be  given 
proper  expression  in  phrases  and  subordinate  clauses.  (See 
section  120,  rule  3.) 

Incorrect:  We  are  going  to  the  country  this  summer,  and  we  are 
going  to  visit  my  grandmother. 

Correct:  We  are  going  to  the  country  this  summer  to  visit  my  grand- 
mother.   (A  simple  sentence) 

Incorrect:  My  chum  told  me  that  I  had  won  the  scholarship,  and 
I  was  overjoyed. 

Correct:  When  my  friend  told  me  that  I  had  won  the  scholarship, 
I  was  overjoyed.    (A  complex  sentence) 

Note.  Try  to  break  yourself  of  the  "so  habit."  The  thoughtless 
use  of  so  as  a  connective  between  the  members  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  excessive  coordination.  Unless  the 
relation  of  the  second  coordinate  clause  to  the  first  is  actually  that  of 
consequence,  so  is  the  wrong  connective.  As  a  rule,  the  clause  preceding 
so  should  be  subordinated  and  the  so  omitted.  Avoid  the  slovenly  habit 
of  using  and  so  as  a  connective. 

Incorrect:  The  manager  notified  me  yesterday  of  my  appointment  as 
secretary,  and  so  I  accepted  the  position  at  once. 

Correct:  When  the  manager  notified  me  yesterday  of  my  appointment  as 
secretary,  I  accepted  the  position  at  once. 

3.  Stringy  compound  sentences.  Do  not  allow  yourself  to 
write  loosely  constructed,  or  stringy,  compound  sentences.  De- 
vote a  separate  sentence  to  each  sentence-thought.  Place  subor- 
dinate portions  of  the  sentence-thought  in  subordinate  sentence 
elements,  either  phrases  or  dependent  clauses.  (See  section  120, 
rule  I.) 

Incorrect:  The  old  storekeeper  had  queer  ways,  but  everyone  was 
fond  of  him,  and  he  certainly  was  a  real  friend  to  everyone,  and  I 
never  knew  a  man  who  had  a  kinder  heart. 

Better:  Though  the  old  storekeeper  had  queer  ways,  I  never  knew 
a  man  who  had  a  kinder  heart.  Everyone  was  fond  of  him,  because 
each  recognized  in  him  a  real  friend. 


CAUTIONS  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  287 

4.  Careless  choice  of  coordinate  conjunctions.  In  the  con- 
struction of  a  compound  sentence,  determine  the  relation  exist- 
ing between  the  two  clauses  and  then  indicate  this  relation 
clearly  by  the  use  of  the  right  connective  or  by  proper  punc- 
tuation (see  section  120,  rule  3). 

Incorrect:  It  is  time  for  the  curtain  to  rise,  and  only  a  few  of  the 
audience  have  yet  come. 

Correct:  It  is  time  for  the  curtain  to  rise,  but  only  a  few  of  the 
audience  have  yet  come. 

Incorrect:  Though  you  have  failed,  you  have  been  given  a  fair 
trial ;  however,  you  should  not  blame  your  employer. 

Correct:  Though  you  have  failed,  you  have  been  given  a  fair  trial ; 
hence  you  should  not  blame  your  employer. 

173.  Parallel  construction.  Ideas  that  are  parallel  in  thought 
should  likewise  be  parallel  in  grammatical  expression  (see  sec- 
tion 121,  rule  4).  Observe  the  following  cautions  in  conforming 
to  this  requirement : 

1.  Infinitives,  participles,  and  verbal  nouns  not  parallel.  Do 
not  attempt  to  make  an  infinitive  and  a  participle,  or  an  infini- 
tive and  a  verbal  noun,  parallel  in  construction. 

Incorrect:  Clark  tried  to  play  football  in  the  afternoon  and  study- 
ing his  lessons  at  night. 

Correct:  Clark  tried  to  play  football  in  the  afternoon  and  to  study 
his  lessons  at  night. 

Correct:  Clark  tried  playing  football  in  the  afternoon  and  studying 
his  lessons  at  night. 

2.  Infinitives,  participles,  and  finite  verbs  not  parallel.  Do 
not  attempt  to  make  an  infinitive  and  a  finite  verb,  or  a  partici- 
ple and  a  finite  verb,  parallel  in  construction. 

Iticorrect:  Last  summer  I  had  the  choice  of  two  trips:  to  accompairy 
my  parents  to  Maine,  or  I  could  go  with  my  chum  to  California. 

Correct:  Last  summer  I  had  the  choice  of  two  trips  :  to  accompany 
my  parents  to  Maine  or  to  go  with  my  chum  to  California. 


,88  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  not  parallel.  Do  not  attempt 
to  make  a  word  and  a  clause,  or  a  phrase  and  a  clause,  parallel 
in  construction  (see  section  121,  rule  4). 

Incorrect:  I  promised  to  take  good  care  of  the  book  and  that  I 
would  return  it  promptly. 

Correct:  I  promised  to  take  good  care  of  the  book  and  to  return  it 
promptly. 

Correct:  I  promised  that  I  would  take  good  care  of  the  book  and 
that  I  would  return  it  promptly. 

174.  Shift  in  point  of  view.  As  a  rule,  avoid  any  shift  in  point 
of  view  within  a  sentence.  It  is  desirable  to  employ  the  same 
subject  and  the  same  voice  throughout  the  sentence.  (See 
section  120,  rule  4.) 

j  Undesirable:   The  entire  class  attended  the  picnic,  and  an  enjoyable 

i      day  was  spent  by  all. 

Better:  The  entire  class  attended  the  picnic,  and  all  spent  an  enjoy- 
able day. 

Undesirable:  When  you  have  selected  a  satisfactory  pattern,  the 
material  may  then  be  bought. 

Better:  When  you  have  selected  a  satisfactory  pattern,  you  may  then 
buy  the  material. 

^  GENERAL  EXERCISE 

^^  In  the  following  exercise  point  out,  explain,  and  correct  all  errors 

^^  i     in  grammar  and  sentence  structure : 

1.  Julia  is  not  near  so  attractive  as  Jane. 

2.  These  kind  of  days  make  everyone  feel  good. 

3.  When  of  high-school  age,  fate  brought  them  together  in  the  same 
town. 

4.  Returning  home,  I  met  him  walking  very  slow. 

5.  Fatigued  by  his  long  walk,  he  insisted  on  accompanying  me. 

6.  I  cannot  help  but  wonder  where  they  have  gone. 

7.  The  great  event  of  the  game  was  when  Faber  made  a  touchdown. 

8.  Trent  is  a  spectacular  player,  but  who  is  not  very  dependable. 


^ 


CAUTIONS  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  289 

9.  I  spent  a  lonely  summer.    All  my  friends  being  away  on  their 
vacations. 

10.  Heavy  rains  came  inAuRust.and  it  was  too  late  to  benefit  the  crops. 

11.  We  agreed  to  write  regularly  and  that  we  would  meet  the  next 
year  as  freshmen  at  Brighton  College. 

12.  What  sort  of  a  vacation  did  you  have  ? 

13.  Being  a  harsh  man,  we  stood  in  awe  of  my  father. 

14.  Neither  of  the  men  have  been  seen  since  Friday. 

15.  Whom  do  you  think  will  be  elected  ? 

16.  Mrs.  Ralston,  accompanied  by  her  two  nieces,  have  been  spend- 
ing the  summer  in  Maine. 

17.  She  would  not  consent  to  me  going  home  alone. 

18.  Our  state's  governor  has  been  impeached. 

V19.  Each  of  us  have  had  our  pictures  made. 
20.  I  slept  good  last  night,  which  is  very  unusual  for  me. 

21.  She  wore  a  brooch  in  her  hair  which  she  bought  in  Paris. 

22.  She  is  one  of  those  oil  millionaires'  wives. 

23.  We  returned  by  the  longest  of  the  two  routes. 

24.  They  had  better  manners  than  any  children  I  ever  knew. 

25.  It  don't  seem  that  I  have  been  laying  in  bed  for  ten  hours. 

26.  I  will  be  eighteen  years  old  tomorrow. 

27.  We  should  have  liked  to  have  accompanied  you. 

28.  If  I  was  in  your  place,  I  would  not  answer  his  letter. 

29.  His  ambitions  are  too  high,  but  they  will  not  be  realized. 

30.  He  spoke  hke  he  meant  what  he  said. 

31.  She  has  not  apologized,  nor  does  she  intend  to. 

32.  Passengers  should  not  enter  or  leave  the  car  while  moving. 

33.  In  order  to  see  the  country  at  our  leisure,  a  car  was  rented  for 
three  weeks. 

34.  He  is  a  lecturer  well  worth  hearing  and  who  never  disappoints 
his  audiences. 

35.  A  heavy  rain  fell  during  the  night,  and  thus  delaying  our  de- 
parture for  several  hours. 

36.  Naturalization  is  where  a  foreigner  becomes  a  citizen  of  the 
country  in  which  he  intends  to  make  his  future  home. 

37.  Where  the  Brents  get  their  money  is  a  mystery  to  me,  that  is  the 
third  car  they  have  bought  this  year,  and  they  take  a  trip  every  summer. 

38.  Someone  told  me  that  you  are  going  away  to  school  this  fall. 
That  you  are  going  to  study  pharmacy. 


290  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

39.  The  reason  I  am  interested  is  because  I  thought  once  of  studying 
pharmacy  myself. 

40.  We  have  been  admiring  the  shade  for  the  lamp  on  the  table  that 
you  recently  bought. 

41.  Dr.  Baldwin  is  one  of  the  most  reliable  physicians  who  has  ever 
practiced  in  our  town. 

42.  All  arrangements  have  been  made  and  the  date  set   for  the 
contest. 

43.  I  am  not  superstitious,  but  one  could  not  live  with  grandmother 
very  long  without  coming  to  believe  in  a  few  of  them. 

44.  I  always  try  to  properly  prepare  my  lessons. 

45.  She  is  prettier,  but  not  so  amiable  as  her  sister. 

46.  To  understand  her  character,  her  environment  and  training  must 
be  taken  into  consideration. 

47.  Upon  consulting  a  chemist,  the  ore  was  found  to  contain  small 
particles  of  gold. 

48.  Arson  is  when  a  person  maliciously  sets  fire  to  a  house. 

49.  She  cares  for  me  like  I  was  her  own  child. 

50.  I  wish  that  today  was  Sunday. 

51.  I  have  forgotten  whom  she  said  would  lecture  tonight. 

52.  Our  class  begun  studying  Latin  in  September. 

53.  Taking  the  child  in  her  arms,  she  set  down  and  sung  him  to  sleep. 

54.  You  shall  miss  us  when  we  are  gone. 

55.  I  shall  allow  no  one  to  criticize  my  action ;  I  shall  die  first. 

56.  He  sure  was  a  gentleman,  and  acted  real  courteous. 

57.  You  look  badly  since  your  illness. 

58.  She  dances  much  more  gracefully  than  him. 

59.  This  is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  play  that  the  young 
author  has  written. 

60.  In  Aunt  Ellen's  girlhood  they  did  not  wear  such  sensible  clothes. 

61.  Mother  told  sister  that  the  doctor  said  she  must  get  more  sleep. 

62.  His  investment  made  him  a  fortune,  which  surprised  all  the  mem- 
bers of  his  family. 

63.  No  one  in  our  class  but  Tom  had  solved  all  their  problems. 

64.  The  monument's  top  was  struck  by  lightning. 

65.  It  was  me  who  they  blamed  for  the  mistake. 

66.  He  told  him  his  books  were  on  his  desk. 

67.  Three  new  cases  of  pneumonia  have  been  reported.    Making 
forty-seven  in  all. 


CAUTIONS  IX  SEXTENXE  STRUCTURE  291 

68.  Neither  the  doctor  nor  the  nurse  were  able  to  give  him  relief. 

69.  A  person  is  known  by  the  way  they  spend  their  leisure. 

70.  The  clock  struck  ten,  we  had  passed  another  hour  in  anxious 
suspense. 

71.  In  order  to  enjoy  good  health,  plenty  of  exercise  should  be  taken. 

72.  The  audience  began  hissing  and  to  leave  the  theater. 

73.  There  was  not  but  one  fault  that  he  found  in  my  drawing. 

74.  We  live  such  a  long  way  from  the  city. 

75.  Having  been  reared  in  the  country,  the  city  often  oppresses  me. 

76.  Our  neighbors  intended  to  have  left  for  their  vacation  yesterday. 

77.  Today  is  some  cooler  than  yesterday  was. 

78.  She  is  more  popular  than  any  woman  in  town. 

79.  Farming  entails  great  risk,  for  they  never  know  when  a  frost 
or  a  drought  may  kill  their  crops. 

80.  Mother  did  not  approve  of  us  attending  the  dance.   Unless  we 
were  chaperoned  by  Mrs.  Gaston. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS 

175.  Words.  A  word  is  a  symbol  that  stands  for  an  idea. 
When  combined  with  other  words  to  form  a  sentence,  it  helps 
to  express  a  thought.  Through  use  in  communication  it  ac- 
quires meaning  and  currency.  Later  in  the  history  of  the  lan- 
guage, however,  it  may  gradually  be  supplanted  by  a  word  that 
is  more  expressive,  or  it  may  fall  into  disuse  altogether  as  the 
idea  for  which  it  has  formerly  stood  ceases  to  interest  mankind. 
In  every  generation  there  are  various  attempts  to  add  new 
words  and  to  change  the  meanings  of  others,  though  compara- 
tively few  of  these  attempts  prove  successful.  On  the  whole, 
language  tends  to  be  conservative  and  economical,  and  the  fate 
of  words  is  like  that  of  living  organisms :  only  the  fittest  survive. 

176.  The  English  language  and  its  sources.  The  English 
language,  according  to  the  most  recent  unabridged  dictionaries, 
contains  more  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  words. 
Of  this  total  fully  a  third  have  either  passed  out  of  use  alto- 
gether or  are  being  gradually  discarded.  An  even  larger  pro- 
portion consists  of  technical  and  trade  words  employed  by 
scientists  and  other  professional  men  and  by  business  men  in 
their  various  fields.  The  comparatively  small  remainder  in- 
cludes the  words  that  constitute  the  vocabularies  of  the  majority 
of  persons. 

The  English  language  is  descended  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but 
from  that  source  it  has  derived  not  more  than  half  its  present 
store  of  words.  The  greater  portion  of  the  other  half  it  has 
taken  over  and  adapted  from  ancient  and  modern  foreign  lan- 

292 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  293 

guages.  From  the  Latin  and  the  French  have  come  perhaps 
four  fifths  of  these  borrowed  words.  From  the  Greek  and  from 
modern  languages  other  than  the  French  have  been  acquired 
most  of  the  words  that  make  up  the  remaining  fifth. 

In  addition  to  borrowing  words  liberally  from  other  languages, 
English-speaking  people  are  constantly  coining  new  words. 
Scientists  and  inventors  enrich  the  language  with  such  words 
as  telephone,  aeroplane,  radio,  vitaminc,  photostat,  and  synura. 
From  proper  names  come  such  words  as  macadamize,  babel, 
dahlia,  volt,  and  bedlam.  From  the  names  of  animals  are  de- 
rived such  verbs  as  gull  and  ape,  and  such  adjectives  as  sheep- 
ish, dogged,  and  henpecked.  Now  and  then,  but  usually  after  a 
long  struggle,  a  slang  word  is  admitted  to  legitimate  use.  Among 
words  thus  admitted  may  be  mentioned  hoax,  mob,  banter,  and 
gerrymander. 

EXERCISE 

Bring  to  class  a  list  of  words  that  have  recently  come  into  the 
English  language  either  through  borrowing  or  through  coinage. 
The  World  War  and  recent  discoveries  and  inventions  should 
afford  you  several  examples. 

177.  Diction.  By  diction  is  meant  the  choice  of  words  for  the 
expression  of  our  thoughts.  Diction  is  based  upon  the  usage  of 
the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  the  present  time.  Concerning 
such  usage  we  can  learn  much  from  modern  unabridged  English 
dictionaries  by  observing  the  standing  of  various  words  that  we 
use  and  that  we  hear  others  employ.  We  must  remember,  how- 
ever, that  an  unabridged  dictionary  contains  all  the  words  in 
the  language,  including  obsolete  words  and  meanings  as  well  as 
comparatively  recent  slang.  The  fact  that  a  word  appears  in 
the  dictionary  does  not  warrant  our  using  it,  therefore,  unless 
it  is  in  good  standing.   We  may  also  aid  ourselves  greatly  in  our 


294  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

choice  and  use  of  words  by  noticing  the  diction  of  the  best 
speakers  and  writers  with  whom  we  associate. 

178.  Good  use.  Correctness  of  diction  requires  that  each 
word  chosen  be  in  good  use.  Good  use  demands  that  words  have 
a  present,  national,  and  reputable  standing  in  the  language. 
A  word  is  in  present  use  if  it  is  used  in  modern  speech  or  is 
found  in  contemporary  literature.  A  word  is  in  national  use 
when  it  is  employed  not  merely  in  certain  professions  and 
trades  or  in  particular  geographical  sections  but  by  a  majority 
of  the  people  throughout  the  nation.  A  word  is  in  reputable  use 
if  it  occurs  in  the  speech  of  cultured  persons  and  in  the  writings 
of  the  best  authors.  Unless  a  word  satisfies  all  three  of  these 
requirements  it  is  not  in  good  use. 

In  respect  to  certain  words  and  phrases  English  usage  dif- 
fers from  American.  Lijt  for  elevator,  petrol  for  gasoline, 
barrister  for  attorney  or  lawyer,  stop  for  stay,  directly  for  im- 
mediately, and  different  to  for  different  from  are  a  few  exam- 
ples of  such  variations.  In  the  United  States  we  should  follow 
American  usage. 

179.  Violations  of  good  use.  Since  most  of  us  employ  daily 
in  our  speech  and  in  our  writing  many  words  that  violate  one 
or  more  of  the  demands  of  good  use,  we  need  to  have  our  atten- 
tion called  to  the  principal  groups  of  words  that  offend  against 
good  use,  in  order  that  we  may  improve  our  diction.  Everyone 
who  desires  to  speak  and  write  well  must  become  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  correct  use  of  words. 

Words  that  violate  good  use  may  be  divided  into  six  groups : 
(i)  barbarisms,  (2)  solecisms,  (3)  improprieties,  (4)  slang, 
(5)  obsolete  and  archaic  words,  and  (6)  technical  words. 

180.  Barbarisms.  A  barbarism  is  a  word  that  has  not  yet 
been  approved  by  the  best  speakers  and  writers  as  a  reputable 
English  word.  The  following  classes  of  words  are  regarded  as 
barbarisms : 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  295 

1.  Colloquialisms.  Words  that  are  permissible  in  familiar 
conversation  but  that  should  be  avoided  in  formal  speech  or 
writing  are  called  colloquialisms.  Such  words  as  cute,  all 
right,  folks,  a  raise  for  an  increase,  poor  for  thin,  and  reckon 
or  guess  for  suppose  are  colloquialisms, 

2.  Dialectal  and  provincial  words.  Words  that  are  used  and 
understood  by  only  a  small  group  of  persons  living  in  a  particu- 
lar section  of  a  country  are  called  provincial  or  dialectal  words. 
Such  words  as  tote  for  carry,  right  smart  for  considerable 
amount,  favor  for  resemble,  redd  up  for  put  in  order,  lose  a  train 
for  miss  a  train  are  violations  of  national  as  well  as  reputable  use. 

3.  Vulgarisms.  Words  peculiar  to  the  speech  of  uneducated 
people  are  called  vulgarisms.  Such  words  as  enthuse,  humans, 
anywheres,  noivheres,  everywhcres,  burgle,  disremember,  com- 
plected, and  heaps  advertise  the  user  as  an  illiterate  person. 

4.  Words  of  popular  coinage.  Many  words  coined  by  news- 
paper writers,  by  workers  in  certain  trades,  and  by  the  general 
public  become  national  in  their  use,  although  not  sanctioned 
by  reputable  use.  To  this  class  of  words  belong  such  coinages 
as  automobilist,  autoist,  typist,  vulgarian,  picturization ,  to  pic- 
turize,  to  aviate,  and  to  hooverize. 

181.  Solecisms.  An  ungrammatical  combination  of  words  in 
a  sentence  is  called  a  solecism.  Solecisms  include  words  and 
expressions  that  violate  either  idiom  or  the  rules  of  syntax. 
The  following  illustrate  this  type  of  offense  against  good  use: 
these  kind  and  those  kind  for  this  kind  and  that  kind ;  between 
you  and  I  for  between  you  and  me;  he  {she  or  //)  don't  for  he 
{she  or  it)  doesn't ;  different  than  for  different  from ;  treat  on  for 
treat  of.  Solecisms  are  so  serious  an  enemy  of  correct  speech 
and  writing  that  they  should  be  included  in  our  study  of  viola- 
tions of  good  use  in  diction  as  well  as  in  our  study  of  errors 
in  grammar.  (In  Chapter  XI  see  section  144  and  the  following 
sections  that  deal  with  solecisms.) 


296  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

182.  Improprieties.  An  impropriety  is  a  word  wrongly  trans- 
ferred from  its  legitimate  use  as  one  part  of  speech  to  that  of 
another,  or  employed  with  the  meaning  of  some  other  word  with 
which  it  is  confused.  Such  words  and  expressions  as  a  combine, 
an  invite,  a  defy,  a  buy,  a  steal,  a  win,  a  get-away,  to  gesture, 
to  suspicion,  learn  for  teach,  raise  for  rear,  effect  for  affect,  and 
expect  for  suspect  are  all  improprieties. 

183.  Slang.  Though  slang  consists  of  barbarisms  and  im- 
proprieties, it  is  such  a  grave  offense  against  good  use  that  it 
calls  for  separate  consideration. 

A  peculiar  kind  of  vagabond  language,  always  hanging  on  the 
outskirts  of  legitimate  speech,  but  continually  straying  or  forcing 
its  way  into  the  most  respectable  company,  is  what  we  call  slang. 
The  prejudice  against  this  form  of  speech  is  to  be  encouraged, 
though  it  usually  rests  on  a  misconception.  There  is  nothing  abnor- 
mal about  slang.  In  making  it,  men  proceed  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  in  making  language,  and  under  the  same  laws.  The  mo- 
tive, however,  is  somewhat  different,  for  slang  is  not  meant  simply 
to  express  one's  thoughts.  Its  coinage  and  circulation  come  rather 
from  the  wish  of  the  individual  to  distinguish  himself  by  oddity  or 
grotesque  humor.  Hence  slang  is  seldom  controlled  by  any  regard 
for  propriety,  and  it  bids  deliberate  defiance  to  all  considerations  of 
good  taste. ^ 

In  general,  as  was  stated  above,  slang  words  are  either  barba- 
risms or  improprieties.  Unauthorized  popular  coinages,  such  as 
fake,  flivver,  flunk,  skidoo,  and  spoof,  which  have  come  to  be 
used  for  their  supposed  comic  suggestiveness,  are  vulgarisms. 
Many  words  and  expressions  in  good  use,  such  as  graft,  pinch, 
kick,  can,  jug,  cooler,  cinch,  swell,  all  in,  cut  out,  on  the  side, 
take  on,  and  up  to,  have  been  given  grotesque  and  incongruous, 

iprom  "Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech,"  by  Greenough  and 
Kittredge.  Used  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  publishers.  Read 
also  the  definition  of  slang  in  the  paragraph  quoted  on  pages  392-393- 


FLOTSAM  CASTLE    (EXTERIOR  AND  INTERIOR  VIEWS) 
This  dwelling  was  built  from  materials  cast  up  by  the  sea 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  297 

though  often  crudely  picturesque,  meanings  that  render  them 
improprieties  or  barbarisms.  Many  other  slang  words  result 
from  the  use  of  contractions,  such  as  exam,  lab,  gym,  auto,  pre- 
lims, prof,  soph,  ad,  and  caj,  derived  from  words  in  good  use. 
Though  we  may  feel  that  slang  occasionally  lends  vividness 
and  life  to  everyday  speech,  we  should  guard  against  using  it 
too  frequently  even  in  familiar  conversation.  In  polite  con- 
versation, as  well  as  in  all  writing,  we  should  avoid  its  use 
altogether.  Most  slang  words  quickly  pass  out  of  use  and  are 
entirely  forgotten,  and  even  during  their  lifetime  they  have  but 
a  vague,  general  meaning.  If  we  desire  to  speak  and  write  with 
clearness  and  accuracy,  we  should  never  allow  ourselves  to 
become  dependent  upon  slang,  for  by  its  use  we  limit  our  vo- 
cabulary and  render  ourselves  incapable  of  expressing  our 
ideas  intelligibly  in  words  that  have  a  definite  and  permanent 
meaning. 

184.  Obsolete  and  archaic  words.  Words  that  fiave  passed 
out  of  use  or  that  are  met  with  only  in  solemn  discourse  and  in 
poetry  are  not  in  good  use  at  present,  unless  a  master  of  literary 
expression  like  Stevenson  employs  them  for  their  suggestiveness 
and  literary  flavor.  Rarely,  if  ever,  shall  we  have  occasion  to 
use  such  obsolete  and  archaic  words  as  eke,  dole,  bedight,  ejt- 
soons,  perchance,  erstwhile,  and  yclept.  Modern  authors  some- 
times employ  such  words,  however,  in  mock-serious  writing. 

185.  Technical  words.  Except  in  technical  discussions  of 
technical  subjects,  words  that  are  peculiar  to  a  certain  art, 
science,  profession,  sport,  or  trade  should  not  be  used.  In  a  dis- 
cussion of  a  technical  subject  intended  for  the  general  public 
strictly  technical  terms  should  be  avoided,  if  possible;  other- 
wise those  that  must  be  used  should  be  explained.  Few  persons 
having  only  a  general  education  possess  sufficiently  accurate 
knowledge  of  such  words  as  perianth,  chromoplast,  caveat^ 
aquarelle,  and  chiaroscuro  to  be  sure  of  their  meaning. 


298  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

186.  A  list  of  common  errors  in  diction.  The  following  list, 
though  far  from  complete,  contains  a  number  of  the  more  com- 
mon barbarisms,  solecisms,  improprieties,  slang  terms,  and 
archaic  words,  which  we  should  avoid  in  our  speech  and  writing. 
We  should  consult  this  list  frequently  and  should  make  free  use 
of  an  unabridged  dictionary.  (See  section  225.) 

Accept  should  not  be  confused  with  except.  Consult  a  dic- 
tionary. 

Accept  of.    Of  is  superfluous. 

Affect  (verb)  should  not  be  confused  with  effect  (verb  and 
noun).  To  affect  means  to  influence  or  change.  To  effect  means 
to  bring  about  or  accomplish.  Effect  (noun)  means  result  or  out- 
come. ''The  war  affected  prices."  ''The  lawyer  effected  a  com- 
promise."   "The  effect  of  his  speech  was  marvelous." 

Aggravate  should  not  be  misused  as  a  synonym  of  such  verbs  as 
annoy,  irritate,  and  vex.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Ain't.   A  vulgarism. 

Allow  means  permit.  It  should  not  be  misused  for  admit,  say, 
suppose,  or  think. 

Allude,  mention,  refer.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Almost,  most.  Almost  means  nearly.  Most  is  properly  used 
to  mean  (i)  in  the  highest  degree  or  to  the  greatest  extent  and 
(2)  the  greater  portion  or  number;  as,  "Most  of  the  passengers 
drowned."  Most  used  for  almost  ("I  was  most  asleep  when  he 
came")  is  a  puerility. 

Alright.  This  word  does  not  exist.  Use  all  right,  though  even 
this  is  colloquial. 

Among,  between.  Among  should  be  used  in  speaking  of  more 
than  two  persons  or  things ;  between,  in  speaking  of  only  two. 

And,  to.  Avoid  using  and  for  to.  Incorrect :  "Try  and  come." 
"Try  and  be  careful."  Correct:  "Try  to  come."  "Try  to  be 
careful." 

And  etc.  Etc.  (the  abbreviation  for  et  cetera,  meaning  and  other 
things,  and  so  on)  should  never  be  preceded  by  and. 

Any  place,  every  place,  no  place,  some  place.  These  phrases 
are  vulgarisms  when  used  for  anywhere,  everywhere,  nowhere,  and 


THE  CORRFXT  USE  OF  WORDS  299 

somewhere.  Used  otherwise  as  phrases  they  are  correct;  as,  "We 
could  not  find  any  place  in  which  to  camp." 

Anyways,  anywheres.  These  are  vulgarisms  for  anyway,  any- 
where. 

As,  that,  whether.  Avoid  using  as  for  that  or  whether.  Incor- 
rect:  "I  don't  know  as  I  understood  him."  Correct :  "I  don't  know 
whether  (that)  I  understood  him." 

Aught,  naught.  Do  not  confuse  aught  (anything)  with  naught 
(nothing,  zero). 

Auto.    Avoid  this  and  similar  abbreviations  in  formal  writing. 

Aivful,  awfully.  Both  are  improprieties  when  used  for  very, 
extremely. 

Bad,  badly.  In  the  expression  "She  feels  bad"  bad  is  colloqui- 
ally permissible  as  a  predicate  adjective,  indicating  the  person's 
state  of  health.  (The  adjective  ///,  not  bad,  is  preferable  usage.)  In 
"She  feels  badly  about  making  the  error"  the  adverb  badly  is 
correctly  used.    (See  section  152,  rule  i.) 

Badly.   Often  misused  to  mean  very  much,  greatly. 

Balance,  remainder,  rest.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Because,  that,  the  fact  that.  Avoid  using  because  for  that  or  for 
the  fact  that  to  introduce  a  noun  clause.  Incorrect :  "Because  you 
overslept  does  not  excuse  you."  "The  reason  I  am  late  is  because 
I  overslept."  Correct:  "The  fact  that  you  overslept  does  not  ex- 
cuse you."  "The  reason  I  am  late  is  that  I  overslept."  (See  sec- 
tion 169.) 

Beside,  besides.  Do  not  confuse  the  preposition  beside  (by  the 
side  of)  with  the  adverb  besides  (in  addition  to). 

Blame  on.  Avoid  using  blame  on  to  mean  put  the  blame  on  or 
Name. 

Borned.    A  vulgarism  for  the  past  participle  born. 

Brainy.    A  vulgarism. 

Bring,  carry,  fetch,  take.  These  verbs  are  not  synonymous. 
Consult  a  dictionary. 

Bunch.  A  vulgarism  when  used  to  mean  crowd,  company,  group, 
assembly,  or  party. 

Bursted.  A  vulgarism  for  the  past  tense  and  past  participle 
burst. 


300  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

But  that,  but  what.  Avoid  using  these  after  the  verb  doubt.  That 
alone  should  be  used.  Correct :  "  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will  come." 

Calculate,  believe,  guess,  reckon,  think.  These  verbs  are  not 
synonymous.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Can,  may.  Can  implies  power  or  ability ;  may  implies  possi- 
bility or  indicates  permission. 

Cannot  help  but.  Often  misused  for  can  but  and  cannot  help 
(followed  by  a  verbal  noun). 

Can't  hardly.  Hardly  implies  negation  in  itself.  To  avoid  a 
double  negative,  say  can  hardly  (see  section  167). 

Can't  seem,.    Misused  for  seem  unable. 

Caused  by.  Avoid  using  caused  by  for  because  of,  on  account 
of.  Caused  is  correctly  used  in  verb  phrases  and  may  then  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  prepositional  phrase  introduced  by  by;  as,  "His  death 
was  caused  by  accident." 

Claim.  Avoid  using  claim  as  a  synonym  of  assert  or  maintain. 
Consult  a  dictionary. 

Combine.  An  impropriety  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  combi- 
nation, trust,  union,  corporation. 

Common,  mutual.  Common  implies  joint  interest  or  possession ; 
mutual  implies  a  reciprocal  relationship.  Note  the  correct  use  of 
these  words:  "Mary's  and  Helen's  letters  contain  many  expres- 
sions of  mutual  admiration."  "They  have  several  tastes  in  com- 
mon."   "They  have  a  common  aversion  to  impressionistic  art." 

Complected.    A  vulgarism  for  complexioned. 

Continual,  continuous.  Avoid  using  these  as  synonymous  words. 
Continual  implies  repetition  in  close  succession ;  continuous  im- 
plies action  without  cessation  or  interruption.  "The  continual 
dripping  of  the  water  became  monotonous."  "The  continuous  flow 
of  the  mighty  stream  impressed  him." 

Could  of,  may  of,  might  of,  must  of,  should  of,  would  of,  are 
all  vulgarisms  resulting  from  the  careless  pronunciation  of  could 
have,  may  have,  might  have,  m-ust  have,  should  have,  would  have. 

Cute.  A  colloquial  word  used  to  avoid  mental  effort.  Use  such 
definite  adjectives  as  amusing,  dainty,  engaging,  pretty,  alert,  lively,, 
vivacious,  but  do  not  say  cunning,  which  means  crafty,  ingenious^ 

Data,  errata,  phenomena,  strata.   All  are  plurals. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  301 

Date.    Slans  when  used  for  engagement  or  appointment. 

Deal.  A  colloquial  and  cant  expression  when  used  to  mean 
transaction,  bargain,  agreement,  arrangement,  trade. 

Demean,  degrade.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Depot.    Not  a  railway  station.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Die  with,  sick  with.    Die  of  and  sick  oj  are  preferable  idioms. 

Differ  from,  differ  with.  One  object  differs  from  another  in  a 
certain  respect.  A  person  differs  from  or  with  another  person  con- 
cerning an  opinion  or  a  belief. 

Different  than.  A  solecism.  Use  different  from.  Though  dif- 
ferent to  is  good  usage  in  England,  it  is  not  so  regarded  in  .America. 

Diner,  sleeper,  smoker.  These  words  are  still  regarded  as  col- 
loquialisms for  dining-car,  sleeping-car,  and  smoking-car. 

Directly.  Though  directly  for  as  soon  as  or  immediately  after 
is  good  usage  in  England,  it  is  not  so  regarded  in  America. 

Disremember.  A  vulgarism  for  be  unable  to  remember  or  fail 
to  rememberr 

Done.    A  solecism  when  used  for  did. 

Don't.  A  solecism  when  used  for  does  not  or  doesn't.  Don't  is 
the  contraction  for  do  not ;  hence  it  is  incorrect  to  say  "He  don't," 
'' She  don't,"  or  "It  don't."    ( See  section  146,  rule  8. ) 

Dope  (noun  and  verb)  and  dopey  (adjective).  Slang.  A  sub- 
stitute for  mental  effort.   Consult  a  dictionary. 

Doubt  but.    Use  doubt  that.    See  But  that. 

Dove.    Colloquial  and  illiterate  past  tense  of  dive.    Use  dived. 

Drownded.    A  vulgarism  for  drowned. 

Due  to.  Misused  for  on  account  of,  owing  to,  because  of.  Due 
may  be  correctly  used  as  a  predicate  adjective  followed  by  a  phrase 
introduced  by  to;  as,  "His  illness  was  due  to  exposure."  See 
Caused  by. 

Either,  neither.  Each  requires  a  singular  verb.  Avoid  using 
either  for  any,  neither  for  none. 

Elegant,  grand,  gorgeous,  splendid,  adorable,  lovely,  magnificent, 
exquisite,  awful,  horrible,  terrible,  etc.  Such  adjectives  require  in- 
telligent use  in  order  not  to  dull  their  meaning  and  effectiveness. 

Enthuse.  A  vulgarism.  Say  be  enthusiastic,  become  enthusias- 
tic, show  enthusiasm,  manifest  enthusiasm. 


302  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Except,  without.  When  used  for  unless,  except  is  archaic  and 
without  is  a  vulgarism. 

Expect,  suspect,  suppose.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Factor,  feature,  phase.  Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  correct  use 
of  these  three  nouns. 

Fake,  faker.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Farther,  further.  Farther  should  be  used  to  indicate  distance 
or  actual  progress;  as,  ''He  walked  two  miles  farther  than  I." 
Further  should  be  employed  to  indicate  figurative  progress  or  de- 
gree; as,  "He  refused  to  aid  us  further." 

Feature.  Colloquial  when  used  as  a  verb  to  mean  make  a 
feature  of,  give  especial  prominence  to. 

Fewer,  less.  Fewer  should  be  used  when  numbers  are  consid- 
ered; less,  when  quantities  or  amounts  are  thought  of.  "There 
were  fewer  than  fifty  men  in  the  fort,  and  they  had  less  than  a 
cask  of  water." 

Fine.    Often  carelessly  used  instead  of  a  more  definite  adjective. 

Firstly.   A  vulgarism.    Use  first. 

First-rate.    Correct  as  an  adjective,  not  as  an  adverb. 

Fix.  A  colloquialism  when  used  as  a  verb  to  mean  repair  and 
as  a  noun  to  mean  plight,  predicament,  condition. 

Flee,  flow,  fly.    Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  principal  parts. 

Flivver.    Slang. 

Flunk.    Slang. 

Folks.  A  colloquialism  for  family  or  relatives.  Consult  a  dic- 
tionary for  the  meaning  and  use  of  folk. 

Funny,  amusing,  odd,  peculiar.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Gent,  gentleman  friend,  lady  friend.    Vulgarisms. 

Get.  Get,  meaning  find  it  possible,  is  a  provincialism  when  used 
with  an  infinitive;  as,  "I  did  not  get  to  see  him."  "He  did  not  get 
to  prepare  his  lessons." 

Go  west.    Euphemistic  slang  for  die. 

Got.  Avoid  the  redundant  use  of  got  with  forms  of  the  verb 
have  to  denote  possession.    ''I  have  (not  have  got)  a  new  book." 

Gotten.    An  obsolescent  past  participle.    Use  got. 

Graft,  grafter.  Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  slang  and  the  col- 
loquial uses  of  these  words. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  303 

Had  of.    A  vulgarism. 

Had  ought,  hadn't  ought.    Vulgarisms.  Use  ought  and  ought  not. 

Hanged,  hung.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Hardly,  scarcely.  Not  to  be  used  with  a  negative.  See  Can't 
hardly. 

Healthy,  healthful.  Healthy  means  possessing  health;  healthful 
means  causing  or  producing  health.  "Children  are  healthy  when 
they  have  fresh  air  and  healthful  food." 

Heap,  heaps.  Vulgarisms  when  used  to  mean  a  large  amount, 
very  much,  a  great  deal,  a  great  many. 

Heathens.    The  collective  form  heathen  should  be  used. 

Human,  humans.  Avoid  using  these  words  as  nouns.  Humans 
is  a  vulgarism.    Say  human  being  or  human  beings. 

Hustle.  Not  to  be  used  intransitively  as  a  synonym  of  hasten 
or  hurry  or  bestir  oneself.  Hustle  may  properly  be  used  as  a 
transitive  verb;  as,  "He  hustled  us  off  to  the  station." 

In  back  of.    A  vulgarism  for  behind. 

Individual,  party,  person.  Avoid  using  these  words  indiscrimi- 
nately.   Consult  a  dictionary. 

Invite,  invitation.  Invite  is  a  verb.  When  used  as  a  noun  to 
mean  invitation  ("I  got  an  invite  to  the  dance"),  it  is  an  im- 
propriety. 

Its,  it 's.  Its  is  the  possessive  case  of  it ;  it 's  is  a  contraction  for 
it  is.    Fix  this  distinction  in  mind. 

Kind  of,  sort  of.  Colloquialisms  when  used  for  somewhat  or 
rather. 

Kind  of  a,  sort  of  a,  style  of  a,  etc.  Good  use  requires  the  omis- 
sion of  the  article.  "I  enjoy  this  kind  of  day."  ''What  style  of 
dress  did  she  wear  ?  " 

Lay,  lie.  Lay  is  a  transitive  verb  meaning  place  or  put ;  lie 
is  an  intransitive  verb  meaning  recline,  rest,  or  occupy  a  posi- 
tion. The  principal  parts  of  the  two  verbs  are  lay,  laid,  laid ;  lie, 
lay,  lain.  Practice  using  all  these  forms  in  sentences  until  you 
have  mastered  them.    (See  section  155.) 

Learn,  teach.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Leave,  let.  Leave  means  depart,  abandon;  let  means  permit, 
allow.    Incorrect:  ''She  would  not  leave  me  see  her." 


304  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Less,  fewer.    See  Fewer. 

Liable,  likely,  apt.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Like.  A  vulgarism  when  used  in  place  of  as  or  as  if.  Like  is  not 
a  conjunction.  Incorrect:  "He  looks  like  he  had  seen  a  ghost." 
"Do  like  I  tell  you."  Correct:  "He  looks  as  if  he  had  seen  a 
ghost."  "Do  as  I  tell  you."  Like  may  properly  be  followed  by  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun,  but  not  by  a  clause  (see  section  164). 

Line.  Grossly  overworked  in  such  phrases  as  along  this  (or 
that)  line,  in  the  line  of,  in  this  (or  that)  line.  Seek  a  more  definite 
and  expressive  word. 

Listen,  say.  Inelegant  when  used  as  imperatives  to  preface  or 
introduce  a  remark. 

Literally.  A  colloquialism  when  used  for  wholly,  altogether. 
Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  correct  use  of  literally. 

Loan,  lend.  Lend  is  a  verb.  Loan  should  be  used  only  as  a  noun. 

Locate.    A  colloquialism  when  used  for  settle. 

Look  badly.    See  Bad,  badly  (see  also  section  152,  rule  i). 

Lose,  loose.  Do  not  confuse  these  verbs.  Give  their  principal 
parts  and  use  them  in  sentences. 

Lot,  lots.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  a  great  amount  of. 

Lovely.    See  Elegant. 

Mad,  angry,  vexed,  provoked.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Mean.  Properly  used  adjectivally  as  a  synonym  of  common, 
base,  low.    A  vulgarism  when  used  for  vicious,  unkind,  brutal. 

Most.    See  Almost. 

Mind,  behave.  Colloquialisms  when  used  to  mean  obey  or  act 
in  accord  with  good  manners. 

Mutual.    See  Common. 

Myself.  Correctly  used  as  a  reflexive  or  an  intensive  pronoun. 
Avoid  using  it  interchangeably  with  /  and  me.  Correct:  "I  hurt 
myself."  "I  myself  saw  him  enter  the  house."  Incorrect:  "Mary 
and  myself  went  to  see  Uncle  Henry."  "He  told  her  and  myself  an 
interesting  story." 

Near  by,  near-by.  Used  colloquially  as  an  adverb  or  a  preposi- 
tion to  mean  near.  Near-by  is  often  misused  as  an  adjective  to 
mean  adjoining,  adjacent,  contiguous,  neighboring. 

Neither.    See  Either. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  305 

Nice.  Colloquially  used  as  an  indefinite  synonym  of  at  least  a 
score  of  adjectives.  Select  adjectives  that  accurately  express  the 
intended  meaning.  Learn  from  a  dictionary  the  legitimate  mean- 
ings of  nice. 

None.  Grammatically  singular,  though  well-established  idiom 
warrants  its  use  as  a  plural  also;  as,  "None  of  the  family  was  in- 
jured" or  "None  of  the  family  were  injured." 

No  sooner.  Correct  when  followed  by  than  ;  incorrect  when  fol- 
lowed by  when. 

Nowhcres,  everywheres,  somewheres.  Vulgarisms  for  nowhere, 
everywhere,  somewhere.    See  Anyways,  anywheres. 

O,  oh.  Do  not  confuse  O,  the  sign  of  direct  address,  with  the 
interjection  oh.  O  is  correctly  used  in  such  exclamations  as  "O 
dear!"and"Omy!" 

Off  of.    Of  is  superfluous. 

On  the  side.  Slang  when  used  to  mean  in  addition,  besides, 
incidentally. 

Only,  alone.  Consult  a  dictionar>'  for  the  distinction  in  meaning. 

Onto.  Not  sanctioned  by  good  use.  Use  on,  upon,  or  up  on. 
The  phrase  on  to  may  be  correctly  used;  as,  ''The  tourists  went 
on  to  the  next  town." 

Out  loud.    Puerile.    Say  aloud. 

Over  with.  With  is  superfluous.  Correct:  "The  meeting  is 
over." 

Overly,  muchly.    Vulgarisms.    Use  over  and  much. 

Party.    See  Individual. 

Peeve,  peeved.  Slang.  Say  provoke  and  provoked,  exasperate 
and  exasperated. 

Per  cent,  percentage.  Avoid  using  these  interchangeably.  Con- 
sult a  dictionary. 

'Phone.    A  colloquial  contraction  for  telephone. 

Photo.    A  vulgarism. 

Piano,  violin,  vocal,  voice.  Incorrect  for  lessons  on  the  piano, 
lessons  on  the  violin,  vocal  culture,  voice  culture. 

Plan  on.  A  solecism  iov  plan  to.  Incorrect : ''I  plan  on  spend- 
ing my  vacation  in  Canada."  Correct :  "I  plan  to  spend  my  vaca- 
tion in  Canada." 


3o6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Plenty.  Plenty  (a  noun)  should  not  be  used  as  a  synonym  of 
plentijtd  (an  adjective)  or  as  the  equivalent  of  the  phrase  plenty 
of.  Incorrect:  ''He  has  plenty  money."  Correct:  ''He  has  plenty 
of  money." 

Posted.    A  colloquialism  for  injormed. 

Present-day.  Present-day  should  not  be  used  as  an  adjective. 
Use  present  or  modern. 

Proposition.  Colloquialism  when  used  to  mean  task,  matter, 
or  affair. 

Proven.    An  obsolescent  past  participle.    Use  proved. 

Put  in.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  spend,  employ,  use. 

Put  in  an  appearance.    Colloquial.    Say  appear. 

Put  out.  Slang  when  used  to  mean  disappointed,  inconven- 
ienced, discommoded,  incommoded. 

Put  over.  Slang  when  used  in  such  an  expression  as  put  one 
over  to  mean  accomplish,  deceive,  take  advantage  of. 

Put  up  with.    Slang  when  used  to  mean  tolerate,  endure,  allow. 

Quite.  Use  quite  only  when  it  is  properly  a  synonym  of  entirely^ 
wholly,  altogether.  Avoid  such  colloquial  phrases  as  quite  a  few, 
quite  a  little,  quite  a  lot,  quite  a  number,  quite  a  while. 

Raise,  rear.  Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  distinction  in  the  use 
of  these  words. 

Raise,  rise.  Raise  is  a  transitive  verb  meaning  lift  or  cause 
to  rise ;  rise  is  an  intransitive  verb  meaning  ascend  or  assume  an 
upright  posture  (see  section  155). 

Rarely  ever.  A  contraction  of  the  phrase  rarely  if  ever.  Ever 
is  superfluous. 

Real.  Real  is  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb.  Avoid  using  real 
for  really  or  very. 

Reason  is  because.    See  Because. 

Remember  of.    Of  is  superfluous. 

Right  away,  right  off.    Colloquialisms  for  at  once,  immediately. 

Right  smart  of.  Provincialism  for  a  considerable  amount  of 
anything. 

Rise.    See  Raise. 

Run.    A  colloquialism  for  conduct,  manage,  operate. 

Same.   Same  is  correctly  used  as  an  adjective  to  mean  identical. 


THE  CORRFXT  USE  OF  WORDS  307 

It  is  incorrectly  used  as  a  pronoun.  The  same  should  not  be  used 
to  mean  also,  likewise.  Incorrect :  "He  read  the  book  and  returned 
same  promptly."  "I  am  well,  and  hope  you  are  the  same."  Cor- 
rect:  "He  read  the  book  and  returned  it  promptly."  "I  am  well, 
and  hope  that  you  also  are  well." 

Says.    Often  misused  by  illiterate  people  to  mean  said. 

Seldom  ever.  A  contraction  of  the  phrase  seldom  ij  ever.  Ever 
is  superiluous. 

Set,  sit.  Set  is  a  transitive  verb  meaning  place  or  cause  to 
sit ;  sit  is  an  intransitive  verb  meaning  occupy  a  seat  or  assume 
a  sitting  posture  (see  section  155). 

Settle.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  pay. 

Shall,  will.    See  section  156. 

Shape.  Colloquial  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  condition,  cir- 
cumstances, situation. 

Show.  Colloquial  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  ( i )  a  theatrical 
performance,  concert,  opera;   (2)  chance,  opportunity. 

Show  up.  A  vulgarism  for  (i)  appear,  attend,  be  present,  come: 
(2)  display;  (3)  expose,  make  a  spectacle  of;  (4)  appear  to 
advantage. 

Sight,  sight  of.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  a  great  quantity 
of,  a  considerable  amount  of,  much,  many,  a  great  deal  of.  See 
Heap  and  Lot. 

Sit.    See  Set. 

Size  up.    Slang  for  estimate,  judge. 

Smart.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  mentally  alert,  quick- 
witted, clever,  talented. 

Snap.    Slang  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  an  easy  task,  bargain. 

So.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  so  that,  in  order  that,  and 
when  used  as  a  synonym  of  very.  Incorrect:  "We  went  early  so 
we  could  get  a  good  seat."  "I  am  so  weary."  Correct :  "We  went 
early  so  that  we  could  get  a  good  seat."  "I  am  very  weary."  Or, 
"I  am  so  weary  that  I  must  rest." 

Some.  A  solecism  when  used  to  mean  somewhat.  "He  is  some- 
what {not  some)  wiser  because  of  this  experience." 

5ow€.  Slang  when  used  to  mean  a  genuine,  a  real,  an  excellent 
person  or  thing. 


308  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Somewheres.    See  Nowheres. 

Stand  for.    Slang  for  permit,  allow,  countenance,  tolerate. 

Start,  begin,  commence.    Consult  a  dictionary. 

Start  in.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  begin,  enter  upon, 
undertake. 

Start  out.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  set  out,  set  off,  leave. 

Stop.  Though  stop  for  stay  is  good  usage  in  England,  it  is  not 
so  regarded  in  America. 

Story.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  lie,  falsehood. 

Stunt.    Slang  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  feat  or  performance. 

Such.  Such  should  not  be  used  for  very.  Avoid  also  the  vague 
and  weak  use  of  such  without  a  result  clause.  A  relative  clause 
following  such  should  be  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun  as. 

Suicide.  A  vulgarism  when  used  as  a  verb;  as,  ''He  suicided." 
Say,  "He  committed  suicide." 

Sure.  A  vulgarism  when  used  for  the  adverbs  surely  or 
certainly. 

Suspicion.  An  impropriety  when  used  as  a  verb;  as,  ''I  sus- 
picloned  there  was  something  wrong."  Say,  "I  suspected  there 
was  something  wrong." 

Swell.  Slang  when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  a  fashionable  person, 
a  fop,  or  when  used  as  an  adjective  to  mean  stylish,  fashionable. 

Take.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  study;  as,  ''I  am  taking 
Spanish." 

Take  and.  Usually  superfluous,  often  crude;  as,  ''Take  and 
measure  the  flour."    Say,  "Measure  the  flour." 

Take  in.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  attend,  go  to,  or  when 
used  to  mean  deceive,  cheat,  dupe. 

These  kind,  those  kind.  Solecisms  and  vulgarisms  for  this  kind, 
that  kind,  or  these  kinds,  those  kinds. 

Thing.    Avoid  overworking  this  word. 

This  here,  these  here,  that  there,  those  there.  Vulgarisms.  Use 
merely  this,  these,  that,  those. 

Through.  Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  have  finished;  as,  "I 
am  through  studying  my  lessons." 

Too,  very.  Usually  neither  too  nor  very  should  come  immedi- 
ately before  a  past  participle.    Use  too  much,  too  greatly,  very 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  309 

much,  very  greatly,  too  well,  very  well.  Correct:  "He  was  too 
much  astonished  to  move." 

Transpire.  Correctly  used  to  mean  hrcome  known  ;  as,  "In  spite 
of  all  precaution  the  secret  transpired."  An  impropriety  when 
used  to  mean  happen,  occur,  take  place. 

Try  and.    See  And,  to. 

Turn  up.    A  vulgarism  when  used  to  mean  arrive,  appear. 

Two  first,  two  last.    Illogical.    Say  first  two,  last  two. 

Ugly.    Colloquial  when  used  to  mean  vicious,  uncivil,  angry. 

Unique.  Unique  means  alone  of  its  kind,  single,  sole.  Like 
round,  level,  perfect,  it  cannot  be  compared  (see  section  151, 
rule  5).  Avoid  very  unique,  most  unique.  Unique  is  often  misused 
to  mean  odd,  strange,  unusual. 

Unless.    See  Except,  without. 

Up.  Not  to  be  added  unnecessarily  to  such  verbs  as  end,  rest, 
pay,  polish,  open,  finish,  divide. 

Up  to  date.  Correctly  used  as  an  adverbial  phrase.  Often  mis- 
used as  an  adjective  to  mean  modern,  stylish. 

Up  to  you.  Slang  for  for  you  to  do  (or  to  decide),  incumbent 
upon  you. 

Uplift.    Colloquial  when  used  as  a  noun  meaning  betterment. 

Used  to  could.  A  vulgarism.  Say  used  to  be  able,  could  for- 
merly, once  could. 

Vamp,  vampire.  Consult  a  dictionary  for  the  legitimate  mean- 
ings of  these  words. 

Very.    See  Too. 

Viewpoint.    Point  of  view  is  preferable. 

Want  in.    Colloquial  for  want  to  come  in. 

Want  to.    Colloquial  for  should,  ought  to,  had  better. 

Wav.    Colloquial  when  used  for  away;  as,  "Way  up  on  the  top 

shelf." 

Ways.  A  solecism  for  the  singular  way;  as,  "He  lives  a  long 
ways  from  here."    Say,  "He  lives  a  long  way  from  here." 

When,  where.  Clauses  introduced  by  when  and  where  should 
not  be  used  as  predicate  nouns.  Incorrect:  "A  jail  is  where  pris- 
oners are  confined."  "  Four  o'clock  is  when  I  quit  work."  Correct: 
"A  jail  is  a  place  where  prisoners  are  confined."    "Four  o'clock  is 


3IO  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  time  when  I  quit  work."  Exceptions  occur  when  the  subject  of 
the  sentence  is  some  such  noun  as  question ;  as,  "The  question  is, 
When  did  he  arrive  ?  "    (See  section  i68.) 

Will,  shall.    See  section  156. 

Win  out,  lose  out.    Colloquial  for  win  and  lose. 

Wire.  Colloquial  when  used  as  a  verb  to  mean  telegraph  and 
when  used  as  a  noun  to  mean  telegram. 

Worth  while.  Not  to  be  used  as  an  attributive  adjective.  In- 
correct: "A  worth-while  concert."  Say,  "The  concert  was  worth 
while." 

Write  up.  Slang  for  the  nouns  report  and  account,  or  for  the 
verb  write. 

You  was.   A  solecism.    You  were  is  both  singular  and  plural. 

Yourself.  Properly  used  as  a  reflexive  and  an  intensive  pronoun, 
but  not  as  a  substitute  for  you.  "When  did  Mary  and  you  (not 
yourself)  arrive?"    {See  Myself.) 

EXERCISES 


In  the  following  sentences  ( i )  point  out  each  violation  of  good 
use  and  name  the  class  of  violation  to  which  each  incorrect  word 
or  expression  belongs ;  (2)  express  the  thought  of  each  sentence  in 
words  that  are  in  good  use;  and  (3)  if  the  word  or  expression  in- 
correctly used  in  this  exercise  has  a  correct  use,  make  an  original 
sentence  in  which  you  employ  it  correctly.  Consult  the  list  given 
above  and  an  unabridged  dictionary  as  often  as  it  is  necessary. 

1.  Everyone  in  the  audience  held  his  breath  while  the  fearless  aviator 
performed  daring  stunts  in  his  aeroplane. 

2.  Your  handwriting  is  awful,  but  your  spelling  is  the  worst. 

3.  I  shall  not  budge  a  step  without  you  go  with  me. 

4.  She  was  awfully  put  out  because  no  one  alluded  to  what  had  tran- 
spired. 

5.  I  allowed  it  would  aggravate  her,  alright. 

6.  Now,  Helen,  do  try  and  behave  like  your  sister  does. 

7.  The  reason  I  got  mad  was  because  the  whole  bunch  claimed  I  told 
a  story  about  'phoning  for  an  auto. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  311 

8.  When  they  blamed  it  all  on  me,  I  sure  got  peeved  ;  any  guy 
would  of. 

9.  I  think  it  was  real  mean  of  them  not  to  accept  of  my  explana- 
tion, anyways. 

10.  During  January  and  February  I  most  froze,  but  the  balance  of 
the  winter  was  some  warmer. 

11.  Due  to  the  storm,  they  calculated  that  nobody  would  put  in  an 
appearance,  but  quite  a  few  finally  showed  up. 

12.  When  the  officer  came  in  the  room,  he  suspicioned  that  some- 
thing was  up. 

13.  She  was  a  mutual  friend  of  ours,  and  couldn't  seem  to  get  through 
telling  us  what  a  swell  individual  her  gentleman  friend  was,  especially 
when  he  got  dressed  up  in  them  nifty  glad  rags  of  his. 

14.  Of  course  we  enthused  over  him,  but  we  couldn't  hardly  keep 
from  laughing,  for  he's  so  different  to  her  first  husband,  who  suicided. 

15.  Just  as  I  reached  the  depot,  I  saw  father  get  off  of  the  sleeper. 

16.  I  disremember  whether  he  died  with  the  influenza  or  with  the 
pneumonia. 

17.  She  don't  never  have  less  than  five  dates  a  week. 

18.  Those  kind  of  folks  are  funny. 

19.  They  are  nice  and  have  got  lots  of  pull  socially,  but  they  will 
never  get  an  invite  from  Mrs.  Rankin. 

20.  According  to  the  write-up  of  his  latest  oil  deal,  I  expect  he  is 
a  grafter. 

21.  In  back  of  the  stove  set  a  funny-looking  human. 

22.  The  teacher  found  it  kind  of  a  hard  proposition  to  learn  Stubbs 
any  Spanish. 

23.  Myrtle  and  myself  always  take  in  everything  in  the  motion- 
picture  line. 

24.  Just  between  you  and  I,  drawing  sure  is  a  snap ;  you  want  to 
be  sure  and  take  it. 

25.  I  plan  on  having  a  lot  of  time  to  put  in  making  money  on  the  side. 

26.  Say,  you  have  got  plenty  of  nerve  if  you  calculate  to  put  that 
over. 

27.  He  was  not  overly  rich,  but  he  raised  a  large  family. 

28.  One  of  his  daughters  took  vocal  quite  a  while,  and  spent  a  sight 
of  money,  but  she  rarely  ever  sings  in  public. 

29.  While  I  was  stopping  with  my  aunt  in  the  country,  I  met  a  very 
unique  old  party. 


312  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

30.  I  sized  up  the  situation  right  away  and  started  out  for  a  near-by 
house  to  try  and  get  help. 

31.  I  hustled  as  fast  as  I  could,  and  'phoned  his  wife  and  the  doctor. 

32.  When  I  got  back,  he  was  laying  on  the  grass  and  looked  badly. 

33.  His  wife  seemed  deeply  effected  when  the  doctor  told  her  that 
her  husband  was  in  a  bad  shape. 

34.  We  expected  he  would  soon  go  west,  but,  due  to  a  lot  of  physical 
pep,  he  upset  all  the  dope  and  is  now  feeling  fine. 

35.  He  owes  a  heap,  of  course,  to  the  healthy  climate  and  the  up-to- 
date  doctor  that  he  had. 

II 

In  each  blank  left  in  the  following  sentences  supply  the  right 
word.  Use  the  rejected  word  correctly  in  a  sentence  of  your  own. 
Consult  a  dictionary  to  find  the  proper  meaning  of  each  word  that 
you  do  not  fully  understand. 

1.  She  refused  to  (except,  accept)  his  apology. 

2.  Illness (effected,  affected)  his  vision. 

3.  A  mirage  is  an  optical (allusion,  illusion). 

4.  He (claimed,  maintained)  that  he  was  right. 

5.  The  earthquake  on  February  29,   1916,  was  an  unusual  

(coincidence,  happening). 

6.  I  went  to  the  lawyer  for (council,  counsel). 

7.  Marconi  (discovered,  invented)  the  wireless  telegraph. 

8.  Twelve  (disinterested,  uninterested)   men   composed  the 

jury. 

9.  His  father (immigrated,  emigrated)  from  Italy. 

10.  The (enormousness,  enormity)  of  the  task  bafiied  him, 

11.  College  offers (exceptionable,  exceptional)  opportunities  to 

earnest  students. 

12.  The  prisoner  was  (hanged,  hung)  on  Friday. 

13.  My  mother  is  an (imaginative,  imaginary)  person. 

14.  My  young  cousin  is  a  very  naive  and (ingenious,  ingenuous) 

girl. 

15.  Bronson's   uncle    was    an    upright,   (notorious,    notable) 

statesman. 

16.  He  succeeded  by  close (observance,  observation)  of  the 

golden  rule. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  313 

17.  Direct  utilization  of  solar  energy  has  not  yet  proved (prac- 
ticable, practical). 

18.  A  large  (percentage,  per  cent)  of  the  audience  could  not 

hear  the  speaker. 

19.  The  summer  house  was  almost  concealed  by  a  grove  of (lux- 
urious, luxuriant)  tropical  plants. 

20.  Our  city  is  enlarging  the  (sewage,  sewerage)   system  in 

order  to  dispose  of  the  increased (sewage,  sewerage). 

21.  This  is  a  new (species,  specie)  of  political  dishonesty. 

22.  I  received  a  letter  written  on  blue (stationery,  stationary). 

23.  The (statue,  stature)  was  unveiled  on  Memorial  Day. 

24.  I  have  been  reading (a  unique,  an  unusual)  book. 

25.  Dr.  Keller's  (vocation,  avocation)  is  training  bird  dogs. 


Ill 

With  the  aid  of  an  unabridged  dictionary  learn  the  differences  in 
meaning  and  use  of  the  following  words.  Use  each  word  correctly 
in  an  original  sentence. 

admit,  confess 

allude  to,  refer  to,  mention 

aware,  conscious 

bring,  carry,  fetch,  take 

character,  reputation 

complement,  compliment 

comprehensible,  comprehensive 

conclude,  decide 

contemptible,  contemptuous 

credible,  creditable,  credulous 

custom,  habit 

economic,  economical 

expect,  anticipate,  presume,  suspect 

hygienic,  sanitary 

imply,  infer 

insoluble,  unsolvable 

majority,  pluraHty 

official,  officious 

oral,  verbal 


314  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

peculiar,  odd,  unusual 

prescribe,  proscribe 

principal,  principle 

relation,  relative 

respectively,  respectfully,  respectably 

scholar,  student,  pupil 

secure,  procure 

various,  varied,  several 

witness,  observe,  behold,  see 


IV 

In  your  notebook  make  a  list  of  all  the  slang  words  and  expres- 
sions that  you  are  able  to  recognize  in  your  own  vocabulary.  For 
each  of  these  slang  expressions  find  one  or  more  reputable  expres- 
sions. Notice  the  superiority  of  the  latter  in  accuracy  and  in  ele- 
gance. By  means  of  persistent  self-cultivation  and  by  the  aid  of 
your  friends  and  the  members  of  your  family  try  to  become  inde- 
pendent of  slang  both  in  conversation  and  in  writing. 


V 

During  the  coming  week  make  a  list  of  violations  of  good  use 
that  you  recognize  in  your  own  speech  and  writing  and  in  the 
speech  and  writing  of  others.  Opposite  each  violation  write  words 
and  expressions  in  good  use  that  should  have  been  employed.  On 
the  day  that  your  teacher  may  assign  submit  your  list  for  criticism 
and  discussion. 

VI 

Read  again  "Self-Cultivation  in  English"  and  come  to  class  pre- 
pared to  discuss  what  the  author  says  about  the  choice  of  words. 


VII 

Read  again  the  schoolboy's  composition  "How  we  earned  our 
Car,"  in  Chapter  V.    Do  you  find  any  words  not  in  good  use  ? 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  315 

VIII 

In  your  notebook  make  a  list  of  all  the  errors  in  diction  that 
your  teacher  has  indicated  in  your  compositions  thus  far,  and  add 
to  this  list  other  errors  that  may  be  pointed  out  in  the  future.  Op- 
posite each  word  wrongly  used  write  the  word  or  expression  that 
you  should  have  used.  Review  this  list  frequently  and  try  to  avoid 
repeating  any  error. 

187.  Summary.  A  word  is  a  symbol  that  stands  for  an  idea. 
In  every  living  language  words  that  are  no  longer  needed  are 
discarded  and  new  ones  are  added. 

English  is  a  composite  language  made  up  of  words  descended 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  an  equally  large  number  borrowed 
from  ancient  and  modern  foreign  languages.  A  relatively  small 
proportion  of  words  have  been  coined  by  English-speaking 
people. 

Diction  is  the  choice  of  words  for  the  expression  of  our 
thoughts.  It  is  based  on  the  usage  of  the  best  modern  English 
speakers  and  writers. 

Correctness  of  diction  requires  that  each  word  chosen  be  in 
good  use. 

To  be  in  good  use,  a  word  must  be  in  present,  national,  and 
reputable  use. 

In  respect  to  certain  words  and  phrases,  usage  in  England 
differs  from  that  in  America.  These  differences  should  be  noted, 
and  American  usage  should  be  followed  in  the  United  States. 

The  principal  violations  of  good  use  are  (i)  barbarisms, 
(2)  solecisms,  (3)  improprieties,  (4)  slang,  (5)  obsolete  and 
archaic  words,  and  (6)  technical  words. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS 

188.  Effectiveness  of  diction.  In  choosing  our  words  we 
must  first  of  all  select  words  that  are  sanctioned  by  good  use 
and  avoid  employing  those  that  lack  the  approval  of  the  best 
speakers  and  writers.  But  correctness  of  diction  alone  is  not  suf- 
ficient if  we  would  express  our  thoughts  not  only  with  accuracy 
but  also  with  clearness  and  force.  Out  of  the  large  number 
of  words  in  good  use  we  should  choose  those  that  best  con- 
vey our  meaning.  In  making  such  a  choice  we  should  be  guided 
by  the  principle  of  effectiveness.  Effectiveness  in  diction  re- 
quires that  words  be  selected  for  their  (i)  exactness,  (2)  ap- 
propriateness, and  (3)  expressiveness.  These  three  qualities  we 
shall  consider  in  the  sections  that  follow. 

189.  Exactness.  To  be  exact,  a  word  must  fit  precisely  the 
idea  for  which  it  stands.  If  we  write  "A  man  moved  across  the 
street"  when  what  we  have  in  mind  to  say  is  "An  aged  beggar 
tottered  over  the  cobblestones,"  we  vaguely  suggest  our  mean- 
ing, but  we  do  not  definitely  express  it.  Man,  moved,  and  street 
are  general  words,  whereas  beggar,  tottered,  and  cobblestones 
are  specific  words.  Specific  words  are  essential  to  exactness  of 
expression.  They  are  far  more  suggestive  than  general  terms, 
in  that  they  tend  to  arouse  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  vivid  men- 
tal pictures.  Specific  words  are  especially  valuable  in  descrip- 
tion and  in  narration,  and  they  likewise  add  clearness  and  force 
to  much  expository  and  argumentative  writing. 

The  groups  of  words  on  the  following  page  illustrate  the 
superiority  of  specific  words  over  general  terms  in  exactness  and 
suggestiveness : 

316 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS 


317 


General  Specific 

animal  .  .  .  dog,  horse,  elephant,  camel,  lion,  sheep,  wolf,  cow, 
hog,  cat,  mouse 

vehicle  .  .  .  carriage,  wagon,  cart,  coach,  chaise,  buggy,  omnibus, 
motor  cycle,  automobile,  aeroplane 

workman  .  .  plumber,  painter,  engraver,  carpenter,  chef,  mason, 
shoemaker,  designer 

book  ....  history,  memoir,  tradition,  biography,  romance,  novel, 
diary,  dictionary 

receptacle  .  .  chest,  box,  casket,  caddy,  bureau,  desk,  cabinet,  safe, 
vault,  trunk,  portmanteau,  bag,  valise 

color  ....  blue,  orange,  violet,  green,  red,  yellow,  crimson,  scar- 
let, brown 

write  ....  copy,  engross,  transcribe,  scrawl,  scribble,  indite, 
typewrite,  engrave 

good  ....  pious,  virtuous,  patient,  excellent,  durable,  palatable, 
beneficial,  generous,  self-sacrificing 

said  ....  stammered,  stuttered,  faltered,  mumbled,  muttered, 
drawled,  croaked,  screamed,  roared,  blustered, 
whined,  whispered,  lisped,  pleaded,  coaxed 

move  ....  crawl,  creep,  glide,  fly,  swim,  walk,  run,  skip,  hop, 
limp,  totter,  stride,  stumble,  pace,  trip,  waddle, 
whirl,  dance,  tumble,  trot,  canter,  gallop 


EXERCISE 


For  each  of  the  general  words  given  in  the  following  list  find  as 
many  specific  words  as  you  can  : 


building 

utensil 

flower 

commodity 

look 

dark 

sport 

weapon 

tree 

recreation 

ask 

cold 

school 

tool 

clothing 

volume 

deceive 

hot 

plant 

science 

periodical 

stream 

laugh 

bright 

insect 

food 

fish 

occupation 

consume 

still 

190.  Appropriateness.  Our  diction  is  appropriate  when  it  is 
properly  adapted  to  our  subject  and  to  the  understanding  of 
our  hearers  and  readers.  Simple  language  is  usually  best,  though 


3i8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

in  the  discussion  of  technical  subjects  for  educated  persons  we 
may  rightly  employ  whatever  technical  words  the  subject  may 
demand.  In  solemn  discourse  and  in  some  forms  of  poetry 
archaic  expressions  are  often  fitting.  Dialogue  in  narrative 
writing  will  properly  contain  colloquial  words,  and,  if  the  char- 
acters are  illiterate  or  speak  somewhat  carelessly,  even  slang 
terms.  In  public  addresses  and  in  formal  writing,  the  subject 
under  discussion,  as  well  as  the  audience  or  the  readers,  will 
determine  the  speaker's  or  writer's  choice  of  words. 

EXERCISES 


Read  again  a  poem  that  you  have  recently  studied  in  class  and 
point  out  several  good  examples  of  the  author's  choice  of  appro- 
priate words.  What  words  do  you  lind  that  would  possibly  not  be 
used  in  expressing  the  same  thought  in  prose?  Did  the  author 
employ  any  archaic  words  ? 

II 

What  does  the  author  of  "  Self-Cultivation  in  English  "  say  about 
the  effective  use  of  words?  For  what  three  qualities  of  speech 
should  you  strive  ? 

Ill 

For  what  subjects,  classes  of  readers,  or  kinds  of  writing  would 
the  following  groups  of  words  be  appropriate  ? 

1.  Chassis,  carburetor,  spark  plug,  ignition  system,  steering-gear, 
tonneau,  coupe,  wind-shield,  limousine. 

2.  Petal,  pistil,  stamen,  perianth,  pollen,  stigma,  corolla,  calyx,  ovule, 
cross-fertilization,  chromoplast. 

3.  Tort,  chancery,  writ,  caveat,  jury,  larceny,  subpoena,  appellate, 
habeas  corpus. 

4.  Palette,  easel,  perspective,  color  harmony,  pastel,  sepia,  chiaro- 
scuro, aquarelle. 


THE  EFFErTTVr:  USE  OF  WORDS 


319 


5.  Links,  cleek,  mid-iron,  niblick,  puller,  driver,  tee,  foursome,  caddy. 

6.  Bias,  flounce,  French  fell,  accordion  plait,  kimono,  hemslitch. 
tunic,  blouse,  organdie,  voile,  modiste. 

IV 

Make  lists  similar  to  those  in  Exercise  III  containing  technical 
words  that  would  be  appropriate  in  a  lecture,  a  talk,  or  an  article 
on  the  following  arts,  sciences,  professions,  sports,  and  trades : 


sculpture 

carpentry 

oil-refining 

bee-keeping 

music 

plumbing 

oil-drilling 

pearl-fishing 

photography 

tailoring 

glass-blowing 

book-binding 

zoology 

radio 

printing 

rug-weaving 

bowling 

dairying 

paper-making 

interior  decorating 

billiards 

assaying 

geology 

motion  pictures 

V 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  talk  on  some  topic  suggested  by  one  of 
the  subjects  in  Exercise  IV.  Explain  any  technical  words  that  you 
think  the  class  will  not  understand. 


VI 

In  a  letter  to  a  friend  explain  clearly  some  technical  subject  that 
you  understand  thoroughly  but  that  is  not  familiar  to  him.  Give 
the  meaning  of  each  technical  term, 

191.  Expressiveness.  ]Many  words  have  two  degrees  or  levels 
of  meaning.  One  meaning  consists  of  what  the  word  literally 
says.  This  we  call  its  denotation.  In  addition,  the  word  may 
have  acquired  through  long  use  an  implied,  or  associated,  mean- 
ing, so  that  it  suggests  much  more  than  it  specifically  denotes. 
This  we  call  its  connotation.  The  expressiveness  of  a  word  or 
phrase  depends  upon  both  its  denotative  and  its  connotative 
meaning.  In  expository  and  argumentative  writing  we  desire 
specific  words  that  are  exact  in  their  meaning  and  appropriate 
to  the  subject,  to  the  understanding  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  and 


320  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

to  the  occasion;  hence  we  choose  words  primarily  for  their 
denotation.  In  descriptive  and  narrative  writing,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  seek  for  expressive  words  that,  by  their  power  of  sug- 
gestion and  implication,  will  stimulate  the  feelings  as  well  as 
the  mind  of  the  reader ;  we  therefore  select  words  that,  besides 
being  exact  and  appropriate,  are  rich  in  connotation.  Poetry 
depends  for  its  effectiveness  largely  upon  the  suggestive  power 
of  the  words  used. 

The  words  house  and  residence  denote  the  same  object  as 
does  the  word  home,  but  they  are  far  less  expressive.  Home 
means  both  house  and  residence  and  arouses  within  each  of  us 
associations  and  memories  that  cluster  around  it.  Similarly 
doubloons  and  pieces  of  eight  suggest  not  merely  Spanish 
money  but  pirates'  treasure.  Galleon  for  sailing-vessel,  palfrey 
for  saddle  horse,  and  grail  for  cup  possess  an  archaic  flavor  and 
poetic  connotation.  For  those  who  have  had  a  vivid  hospital 
experience  the  words  iodoform,  ancesthetic,  and  interne  may 
call  to  mind  varied  associations. 

EXERCISE 

Read  a  poem  and  a  short  prose  passage  and  make  a  list  of  as 
many  connotative  words  as  you  can  find.  Note  in  each  case  what 
the  author  gained  in  expressiveness  by  their  use.  In  the  place 
of  each  connotative  word  substitute,  if  you  can,  a  word  that  is 
merely  denotative  and  observe  the  change  in  meaning  that  results. 

192.  The  suggestive  value  of  figures  of  speech.  Figures  of 
speech,  which  are  variations  from  the  literal  or  ordinary  forms 
of  expression,  are  highly  effective,  for  they  add  vividness,  vigor, 
and  beauty  to  our  utterances,  A  comparison  of  the  following 
figures  of  speech  with  their  corresponding  literal  equivalents 
will  illustrate  the  suggestive  value  of  figurative  language  as  a 
means  of  effective  expression. 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  321 

Literal  Figurative 

Misfortunes  never  come  singly.  When  sorrows  come,  they  come 

not  single  spies, 
But  in  battalions. 
Why  can  I  not  go  to  sleep?  O  gentle  sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I 
frighted  thee  ? 

In  general,  figurative  language  makes  the  expression  of  our 
thoughts  more  clear  and  forceful  and  at  the  same  time  renders 
them  attractive  to  our  hearers  and  readers.  Though  figures  are 
the  ornaments  of  speech,  they  should  not  be  used  unless  they 
are  natural  and  appropriate  and  increase  the  effectiveness  of 
what  we  have  to  say. 

In  the  sections  that  follow,  the  principal  figures  of  speech  are 
explained  and  illustrated. 

193.  Simile.  A  simile  is  a  statement  of  the  figurative  resem- 
blance of  one  person  or  thing  to  another,  expressed  in  the  form 
of  a  comparison.  The  best  similes  are  those  in  which  persons 
or  things  unlike  in  most  respects  are  compared  because  they 
have  one  point  of  resemblance  in  appearance,  qualities,  or  ac- 
tions, or  in  the  effect  they  produce.  Usually  this  comparison  is 
expressed  by  like  or  as.  Not  all  expressed  comparisons,  how- 
ever, are  similes.  ''The  automobile  ran  as  fast  as  the  train" 
is  simply  a  comparison  with  no  suggestion  of  figurative  re- 
semblance. Each  of  the  sentences  given  below  is  a  simile. 

1.  Our  house  swarmed  with  guests  like  a  beehive. 

2.  He  sat  all  the  evening  as  silent  as  the  Sphinx. 

3.  We  spend  our  years  as  a  tale  that  is  told. 

4.  Thy  soul  was  like  a  star. 

194.  Metaphor.  A  metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which 
the  comparison  is  implied  instead  of  being  formally  stated.  .\s 
in  a  simile,  the  persons  or  things  compared  should  be  unlike 


322  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

in  most  respects.  "That  man  is  a  hero"  is  not  a  metaphor.  The 
following  illustrations  show  the  difference  between  a  simile 
and  a  metaphor. 

Simile  Metaphor 

Life  lies  between   two   eternities  Life  is  an  isthmus  between  two 

as  an  isthmus  between  two  con-  eternities. 

tinents. 

Life    is    like    a    dome    of    many-  Life  is  a  dome  of  many-colored 

colored  glass.  glass. 

All  the  world  is  like  a  stage.  All  the  world  's  a  stage. 

Her  heart  is  like  a  garden  fair.  The  garden  of  her  heart  blossoms 

with  kindness  and  love. 

Each  part  of  a  metaphor  should  be  consistent  with  every 
other  part.  Mixed  metaphors,  which  constitute  serious  errors  of 
composition,  result  from  the  confusion  of  different  metaphors 
in  the  same  sentence  or  from  the  joining  of  metaphorical  with 
literal  language. 

He  alone  can  steer  the  storm-tossed  ship  of  state  on  its  perilous 
march.    (Confused  metaphors) 

He  flung  his  powerful  frame  into  the  saddle  and  his  great  soul  into 
the  cause.    (Literal  joined  with  metaphorical  language) 

195.  Personification.  Personification  is  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  life  is  attributed  to  inanimate  things  or  to  abstract  ideas. 
Personification  is  of  three  kinds : 

1.  That  produced  by  raising  an  inanimate  object  to  the  rank 
of  an  animal  or  a  human  being. 

The  thirsty  soil  drank  in  the  rain. 
The  wind  howled  and  moaned. 

2 .  That  produced  by  raising  an  animal  or  a  plant  to  the  rank 
of  a  human  being. 

The  dog  laughed  and  said,  "You  don't  deceive  me  that  way." 
The  flowers  nodded  to  her  as  she  passed. 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  323 

3.  That  produced  by  raising  an  abstraction  to  the  rank  of  a 
human  being. 

Justice  lamented  the  deed. 
Freedom  blushed  for  shame. 

196.  Apostrophe.  Apostrophe  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which 
the  absent  are  addressed  as  if  they  were  present,  the  dead  as  if 
they  were  living,  and  inanimate  objects  as  if  they  were  human 
beings.  Apostrophe  is  often  combined  with  metaphor  and  per- 
sonification. 

1.  Milton,  thou  shouldst  be  lix-ing  at  this  hour. 

2.  O  world,  I  cannot  hold  thee  close  enough ! 

3.  Time,  you  old  gypsy  man, 

Will  you  not  stay? 

4.  My  country,  'tis  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing. 

197.  Antithesis.  Antithesis  is  a  figure  of  speech  made  up  of 
opposing  or  contrasted  words  or  sentiments  arranged  in  parallel 
construction  in  the  same  sentence.  Antithesis  is  a  figure  based 
on  unlikeness,  and  therefore  always  expresses  contrast.  Verbs 
should  be  contrasted  with  verbs,  adjectives  with  adjectives, 
nouns  with  nouns,  etc. 

1.  To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

2.  It  is  better  to  lose  health  like  a  spendthrift  than  to  waste  it  like 
a  miser. 

3.  Deeds  show  what  we  are ;  words,  what  we  should  be. 

Often  there  is  a  double  or  even  triple  contrast  in  the  same 
sentence. 

Silence  is  deep  as  Eternity;  speech  is  shallow  as  Time. 

Here  silence  and  speech,  deep  and  shallow,  Eternity  and 
Time  are  contrasted. 


324  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

198.  Epigram.  An  epigram  is  a  brief,  pointed  saying  that 
has  the  nature  of  a  proverb.  The  best  epigrams  are  those  in 
which  there  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  the  intended 
meaning  and  the  form  of  the  expression.  Like  antithesis,  epi- 
gram is  based  on  contrast.  Puns  are  often  expressed  by  epi- 
grams. 

1.  The  child  is  father  of  the  man. 

2.  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

3.  A  new  way  to  contract  debts — pay  them  off. 

4.  The  fastest  colors  are  those  that  will  not  run. 

5.  If  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 

199.  Metonymy.  Metonymy  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which 
the  name  of  one  object  is  used  for  that  of  another  which  it 
clearly  suggests. 

1.  The  kettle  boils  (that  is,  the  water  in  the  kettle  boils). 

2.  He  chose  a  gun  instead  of  a  cap  and  gown  (that  is,  he  became  a 
soldier  instead  of  a  student). 

3.  Have  you  read  Shakespeare  (that  is,  his  works)  ? 

4.  Only  the  knife  (that  is,  a  surgical  operation)  can  save  him. 

5.  He  addressed  the  chair  (that  is,  the  presiding  officer). 

200.  Synecdoche.  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which 
a  part  is  named  for  a  whole,  or  a  whole  for  a  part. 

1.  The  speaker  beheld  a  sea  of  faces. 

2.  The  world  knows  his  worth. 

3.  He  won  her  hand  in  marriage. 

4.  We  have  tea  at  six  o'clock. 

5.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

201.  Hyperbole.  Hyperbole  is  a  figure  of  speech  based  on 
exaggeration.  It  is  sometimes  effective  in  descriptions  of  the 
grand  and  sublime.  In  general,  except  in  humorous  conversa- 
tion or  writing,  exaggerations  and  extravagant  comparisons 
should  be  avoided. 


©  Tlii'rnton  0.ikk-y  and  the  Century  Mjgazme 

THE  SKYSCRAPERS 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  325 

1.  We  live  the  time  that  a  match  tlickers. 

2.  I  have  looked  all  over  creation  for  my  book. 

3.  The  tumult  reached  the  stars. 

4.  Here  [at  ConcordJ  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world. 

202.  Climax.  Climax  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  a  series 
of  thoughts  or  statements  is  arranged  in  the  order  of  increasing 
importance.  In  true  climax  a  weaker  or  less  important  thought 
should  never  follow  a  stronger  or  more  important  one. 

1.  He  sacrificed  his  business,  his  home,  and  his  honor  for  political  gain. 

2.  Since  concord  was  lost,  friendship  was  lost ;  fidelity  was  lost ; 
liberty  was  lost — all  was  lost. 

Anticlimax  results  when  the  climactic  order  is  reversed.  It 
is  often  used  in  humorous  writing. 

1.  He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his  dog  at 
one  fell  swoop. 

2.  0  dear  !  O  dear  !  what  shall  I  do  ? 
I've  lost  my  beau  and  lip-stick,  too ! 

203.  Onomatopoeia.  Onomatopoeia  is  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  the  sound  of  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  imitates  the 
sound  that  it  names  or  describes.  The  entire  group  of  words 
that  imitate  natural  sounds  belongs  to  this  class.  All  such 
words  as  rumble,  crash,  splash,  boom,  whiz,  hum,  buzz,  cackle, 
chirp,  puff,  gurgle,  hiss,  kiss,  smack,  tinkle,  and  chatter  are 
examples  of  onomatopoeia.  Poe's  ''The  Bells"  and  Southey's 
"The  Cataract  of  Lodore"  are  illustrations  of  the  extensive 
use  of  onomatopoeia. 

204.  Irony.  Irony  is  veiled  sarcasm.  It  consists  in  using  ex- 
pressions of  commendation  when  the  exact  opposite  is  meant. 

1.  What  a  brilliant  remark  that  was ! 

2.  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

3.  Such  generosity  as  yours  overwhelms  me. 

4.  I  assure  you  that  I  shall  lose  no  time  in  reading  your  book. 


32  6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

205.  Euphemism.  Euphemism  consists  in  stating  a  disagree- 
able truth  in  agreeable  language.  Often  sarcasm  is  implied,  but 
it  is  miWer  than  in  irony. 

1.  He  and  Truth  are  not  on  very  intimate  terms. 

2.  If  only  the  good  die  young,  he  should  live  to  a  ripe  old  age. 

3.  He  fed  his  family  on  bowls  of  sunshine. 

4.  She  is  the  victim  of  an  overactive  imagination  and  is  fond  of 
romancing. 

5.  Her  only  son  she  gave  to  help  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 

EXERCISES 
I 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  and  name  all  the  figures  of 
speech : 

1.  Wit  is  a  dangerous  weapon. 

2.  A  wise  man  is  never  less  alone  than  when  alone. 

3.  And  thrice  the  Saxon  blade  drank  blood. 

4.  Books  are  the  legacies  that  genius  leaves  to  mankind. 

5.  Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. 

6.  And  Hke  the  wings  of  sea  birds 
Flash  the  whitecaps  of  the  sea. 

7.  He  worked  hard  to  keep  the  wolf  from  his  door. 

8.  Life  is  a  leaf  of  paper  white, 
Whereon  each  one  of  us  may  write 

His  word  or  two,  and  then  comes  night. 

9.  She  has  as  little  cause  for  vanity  as  any  woman  I  ever  met. 

10.  God  rest  you,  happy  gentlemen, 

Who  laid  your  good  lives  down, 
Who  took  the  khaki  and  the  gun 
Instead  of  cap  and  gown. 

11.  You,  Four  Walls, 
Wall  not  in  my  heart ! 

12.  Like  to  islands  in  the  seas 
Stand  our  personalities. 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  327 

13.  Oh,  my  heart  is  a  little  golden  fountain ; 
Through  it  and  spilling  over  the  brim 
Wells  the  love  of  you. 

14.  Earth  is  our  mother,  anil  our  tent  the  sky. 

15.  And  all  the  little  streets  reach  out  their  arms 
To  be  received  into  the  salt-drenched  dark. 

16.  Behold  where  Night  clutches  the  cup  of  heaven 
And  quaffs  the  beauty  of  the  world  away  I 

17.  And  the  bumblebee  bass  drums  boomed  beneath. 

18.  The  bench,  the  pulpit,  the  press,  and  the  stage — all  exert  a 
powerful  influence. 

19.  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 

20.  The  factory  employs  fifteen  hundred  hands. 

21.  Some  are  too  foolish  to  commit  follies. 

22.  God  made  the  country  ;  man  made  the  town. 

23.  O  Nature,  how  wonderful  are  thy  laws ! 

24.  He  raised  a  mortal  to  the  skies  ; 
She  drew  an  angel  down. 

II 

Make  a  list  of  twelve  figures  of  speech  that  you  find  in  your 
reading  or  identify  in  conversation.  After  each  sentence  in  your 
list  name  the  figure  or  figures  that  it  contains.  Then  write  out  a 
literal  version  of  the  same  thought  and  note  the  loss  in  effectiveness. 

206.  Violations  of  effectiveness.  Carelessness  in  our  choice 
of  words  impairs  the  effectiveness  of  what  we  have  to  say. 
In  our  effort  to  make  our  diction  exact,  appropriate,  and  ex- 
pressive we  should  do  our  utmost  to  avoid  the  following  viola- 
tions of  effectiveness :  (i)  needless  repetition,  (2)  exaggeration, 
(3)  trite  expressions,  (4)  hackneyed  quotations,  (5)  overuse 
of  figurative  language,  and  (6)  ''fine  writing." 

207.  Needless  repetition.  Conciseness,  the  use  of  one  expres- 
sive word  in  place  of  several  words,  renders  our  diction  more 
effective.  We  should  therefore  avoid  tautology,  which  consists 
in  the  needless  repetition  of  our  meaning  in  other  words,  and 


32  8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

redundancy,  which  consists  in  using  superfluous  words.  Such 
expressions  as  in  plain  sight  and  clearly  visible,  his  own  indi- 
viduality and  personality,  and  azure  blue  illustrate  what  we 
mean  by  tautology.  Phrases  such  as  advance  forward,  return 
back,  join  together,  repeat  again,  finally  at  last,  and  rest  up  are 
examples  of  redundancy.  We  should  always  be  as  concise  as 
clearness  will  permit. 

208.  Exaggeration.  The  careless  use  of  superlatives,  as  well 
as  needless  exaggeration  of  all  other  types,  lessens  rather  than 
increases  the  effectiveness  of  our  utterances.  Many  of  us  by 
overworking  very  and  most  have  well-nigh  destroyed  the  force 
that  these  words  might  otherwise  have.  Such  modifying  words 
as  adorable,  awful,  deadly,  elegant,  exquisite,  fascinating, 
ghastly,  gorgeous,  grand,  great,  horrible,  lovely,  magnificent, 
splendid,  stupendous,  superb,  terrible,  weird,  beautifully,  gor- 
geously, horribly,  magnificently,  powerfully,  splendidly,  ter- 
ribly, and  wonderfully  should  be  used  only  when  they  express 
exactly  the  meaning  intended.  Our  diction  is  weak  and  puerile 
when  we  use  such  expressions  as  "I  was  literally  scared  to 
death,"  ''Look  at  that  ghastly  hole  in  my  handkerchief!"  or 
"Oh,  I  had  the  grandest,  the  most  perfectly  splendid  trip  you 
can  possibly  imagine ! "  Such  expressions  usually  savor  of  in- 
sincerity, are  felt  to  be  lacking  in  accuracy  and  force,  and  are 
therefore  ineffective. 

209.  Trite  expressions.  Within  the  limits  of  correct  usage 
we  should  each  strive  to  develop  individuality  in  diction.  This 
we  cannot  do  if  we  lazily  permit  ourselves  to  continue  to  use 
trite  expressions,  such  as  along  this  line,  last  but  not  least, 
green  with  envy,  silence  reigned  supreme,  and  the  handiwork 
of  Mother  Nature.  If  we  think  clearly  and  choose  words  that 
say  exactly  and  forcefully  what  we  mean,  we  shall  rarely  find  it 
necessary  to  use  stale  diction.  Surely  we  can  find  fresher,  more 
expressive  phrases  than  the  following : 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS 


329 


the  festive  board 

none  the  worse  for  wear 

tired  but  happy 

poor  but  honest 

the  fair  sex 

in  our  midst 

the  irony  of  fate 

the  moon  in  all  its  glory 

order  out  of  chaos 


a  worth-while  life 
the  rippling  waves 
the  velvety  grass 
the  light  fantastic 
a  long-felt  want 
consigned  to  earth 
a  few  well-chosen  words 
an  important   factor 
in  all  its  phases 


210.  Hackneyed  quotations.  Quotations  and  proverbs  that 
have  become  hackneyed  by  too  frequent  use  impair  the  effec- 
tiveness of  our  diction.  We  should  avoid  such  threadbare  ex- 
pressions as  the  following: 


method  in  his  madness 
he  that  runs  may  read 
What's  in  a  name? 
sermons  in  stones 
the  straight  and  narrow  way 
far  from  the  madding  crowd 
monarch  of  all  I  survey 
where  ignorance  is  bliss 
A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  for- 
ever 


the  last  rose  of  summer 
There's  no  place  like  home 
I  could  a  tale  unfold 
Some     have     greatness     thrust 

upon  them 
Absence  makes  the  heart  grow 

fonder 
plain  living   and   high   thinking 
Better  late  than  never 


211.  Overuse  of  figurative  language.  Figures  of  speech,  al- 
though they  are  valuable  in  increasing  the  effectiveness  of  what 
we  have  to  say,  should  never  be  far-fetched,  forced,  or  inappro- 
priate. They  should  be  used  instinctively,  rather  than  as  the 
result  of  meditation  and  invention.  They  should  not  call  atten- 
tion to  themselves  as  a  device  consciously  used,  but  should  in  a 
natural  and  unobtrusive  manner  contribute  their  share  to  the 
force,  vividness,  and  attractiveness  of  our  expression.  They  are 
a  means,  not  an  end  in  themselves.  We  should  not  abuse  such 
figures  as  hj^Derbole,  apostrophe,  epigram,  irony,  and  euphe- 
mism.   We  should  be  on  our  guard  also  against  overworked  figur- 


330  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ative  expressions  such  as  the  grim  reaper,  the  table  groaned, 
brave  as  a  lion,  ran  like  a  frightened  deer,  raven  tresses,  and 
marble  brow.  We  should  make  our  own  figures  rather  than 
accept  them  ready-made. 

212.  "Fine  writing."  "Fine  writing"  is  "rich  diction  applied 
to  a  plain  subject,  or  lofty  words  to  a  weak  idea."  Since  its 
use  indicates  insincerity  or  affectation  on  the  part  of  the  speaker 
or  writer,  and  since  it  distracts  the  attention  of  the  reader,  "fine 
writing"  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  of  effectiveness.  The  boy 
who,  during  his  school  days,  had  written  sumptuous  repast  for 
meal,  partake  of  for  eat,  and  palatial  residence  for  house  or 
home,  later  in  life,  as  the  editor  of  a  small  newspaper,  wrote 
the  following: 

The  lovely  and  elegant  home  of  that  crown  prince  of  hospitality,  the 
big-hearted  and  noble-souled  Daniel  Stone,  was  a  radiant  scene  of  en- 
chanting loveliness,  for  Cupid  had  brought  one  of  his  finest  offerings 
to  the  court  of  Hymen ;  for  the  lovable  Miss  Julia,  the  beautiful  and 
accomplished  daughter  of  Mr.  Stone  and  his  refined  and  most  excellent 
wife,  who  is  a  lady  of  rarest  charms  and  sweetest  graces,  dedicated  her 
life's  ministry  to  Dr.  Howard  K.  Wortham,  the  briUiant  and  gifted  and 
talented  son  of  that  ripe  scholar  and  renowned  educator,  the  learned 
Professor  Wortham,  the  very  able  and  highly  successful  president  of  the 
Female  College. 

EXERCISES 

I 

In  the  following  exercise  point  out  examples  of  tautology,  re- 
dundancy, exaggeration,  trite  expressions,  hackneyed  quotations, 
and  affected  writing.  Rewrite  each  sentence  to  improve  its  effec- 
tiveness. 

1.  We  all  returned  back  home,  tired  but  happy,  and  none  the  worse 
for  wear. 

2.  I  absolutely  adore  lobster  salad. 

3.  Then  there  came  a  dull  thud  that  was  clearly  audible  to  our  ears. 


THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  331 

4.  The  work  of  Mother  Nature  in  this  secluded  spot  beggars  de- 
scription. 

5.  I  just  loathe  and  detest  chemistry. 

6.  The  gentlemen's  cleansing-establishment  was  entirely  devoured 
by  the  consuming  element  in  our  recent  disastrous  conflagration. 

7.  The  lake  stretched  before  us  like  a  vast  mirror  of  silver,  while 
all  around  us  the  feathered  songsters  were  caroling  their  morning  matins. 

8.  I  am  terribly  sorry  that  I  have  kept  you  waiting  such  an  ex- 
tremely long  time,  but  haste  makes  waste,  you  know. 

9.  There  she  stood,   divinely   tall  and  most  divinely   fair,  lost  in 
maiden  meditation,  heart-whole  and  fancy-free. 

10.  On  Easter  Sunday  our  esteemed  former  citizen,  Mr.  Floyd  Agnew 
Perkins,  deserted  the  ranks  of  single  blessedness  and  became  a  happy 
benedict,  being  united  in  the  bonds  of  matrimony  with  Miss  Eustacia 
Farley,  one  of  our  most  talented  musicians  and  the  paragon  of  her  sex. 
The  happy  pair  will  reside  in  Mortonville,  where  Mr.  Perkins  is  at 
present  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits. 


II 

From  your  own  vocabulary  and  from  your  observation  of  the 
speech  of  others  make  a  list  of  tautologous,  redundant,  trite,  exag- 
gerated, and  affected  expressions. 

213.  Summary.  Effectiveness  of  diction  depends  upon  the 
use  of  exact,  appropriate,  and  expressive  words  to  convey  our 
meaning. 

To  be  exact,  a  word  must  fit  precisely  the  idea  for  which  it 
stands.  Specific  words,  rather  than  general  terms,  are  essential 
to  exactness  of  expression. 

To  be  appropriate,  a  word  must  be  properly  adapted  to  the 
subject  and  to  the  understanding  of  our  hearers  and  readers. 

To  be  expressive,  a  word  should  possess,  in  addition  to  its 
literal  meaning,  the  power  of  suggestion  that  will  stimulate  the 
mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader.  What  a  word  literally  says  is  its 
denotation.   What  it  suggests  is  its  connotation. 


332  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Figures  of  speech  intelligently  employed  have  great  sugges- 
tive value.  The  principal  figures  are  simile,  metaphor,  personifi- 
cation, apostrophe,  antithesis,  epigram,  metonymy,  synecdoche, 
hyperbole,  climax,  onomatopoeia,  irony,  and  euphemism. 

The  six  principal  violations  of  effectiveness  of  diction  are 
(i)  needless  repetition,  (2)  exaggeration,  (3)  trite  expressions, 
(4)  hackneyed  quotations,  (5)  overuse  of  figurative  language, 
and  (6)  "fine  writing." 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  LARGE  VOCABULARY 

214.  Poverty  in  words  and  thoughts.  Financially  we  are 
considered  poor  if  we  possess  insufficient  money— the  symbol 
of  value  and  the  medium  of  commercial  exchange— to  live  in 
keeping  with  the  standards  of  the  social  group  to  which  we 
belong.  Intellectually  and  socially  we  are  considered  poor  if 
we  have  insufficient  words— the  symbols  of  ideas  and  the  me- 
dium of  thought  exchange— to  express  our  thoughts  clearly  and 
effectively.  And  just  as  we  cannot  spend  money  that  we  do 
not  have,  so  we  cannot  use  words  that  are  not  in  our  vocab- 
ulary. Yet  our  mastery  of  English  as  a  tool,  as  well  as  our 
mental  growth,  demands  first  of  all  that  we  have  a  large  stock 
of  words  which  we  can  use  intelligently.  The  average  edu- 
cated person  employs  from  three  to  five  thousand  words, 
whereas  many  of  us  "get  along,"  as  we  say,  with  five  hundred 
to  a  thousand.    Surely  we  have  need  of  a  greater  number. 

215.  Kinds  of  words  a  vocabulary  should  contain.  In  our 
efforts  to  enlarge  our  vocabulary  we  should  make  it  a  practice 
to  add  useful  words  common  to  the  speech  and  writing  of  edu- 
cated persons.  Except  in  our  study  of  special  subjects,  such  as 
the  sciences,  we  need  not  concern  ourselves  very  much  with 
learning  technical  terms  or  other  words  rarely  encountered  in 
conversation,  in  lectures,  or  in  reading.  We  shall  be  aided  in 
our  endeavors  if  we  understand  some  of  the  classes  of  words 
from  which  we  may  acquire  additions  to  our  vocabulary. 

216.  Anglo-Saxon  words.  Anglo-Saxon  words,  since  they 
constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the  familiar  words  used  in 
everyday  life,  contribute  naturalness  and  force  to  what  we  say. 

333 


334  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

They  include  (i)  words  relating  to  the  home,  such  as  mother y 
father,  brother,  sister,  home;  (2)  words  expressing  strong  feel- 
ing, such  as  gladness,  sorrow,  love,  hate,  fear,  pride,  shame; 
(3)  names  of  common  things,  such  as  sun,  moon,  earth,  hill, 
stone,  sand,  salt,  tree,  horse,  cow,  hand,  arm,  man,  woman, 
day,  night,  cold,  heat ;  (4)  a  large  number  of  our  specific  verbs, 
such  as  slide,  walk,  run,  leap,  fly,  swim,  as  distinguished  from 
general  words  like  move ;  (5)  many  other  words  employed  in  the 
common  affairs  of  life,  such  as  bring,  fetch,  sell,  buy,  work,  play, 
rich,  pretty,  sweet;  and  (6)  most  of  the  words  in  our  familiar 
proverbs,  such  as  "Haste  makes  waste." 

217.  Classical  words.  English  words  derived  from  either  the 
Latin  or  the  Greek  are  called  classical  words.  We  usually  re- 
gard Anglo-Saxon  words  as  popular,  as  distinguished  from 
classical  words,  which  we  think  of  as  learned,  though  a  large 
number  of  classical  words  have  become  popular.  In  many  cases 
words  of  this  latter  type  are  as  familiar  and  as  widely  used  as 
native  English  words.  From  the  Latin  have  come  such  words  as 
animal,  circus,  contradict,  describe,  fact,  graduate,  junior,  medi- 
cine, recess,  suburb,  vaccinate,  ventilation,  veto,  victor,  vote. 
From  the  Greek  we  have  derived  such  words  as  athlete,  atlas, 
biography,  chemist,  dialogue,  encyclopedia,  iodine,  microscope, 
panic,  photograph,  skeleton,  telegraph,  zoology.  From  modern 
foreign  languages,  particularly  the  French,  we  have  obtained  a 
considerable  number  of  useful  words. 

218.  Idioms.  An  idiom  is  a  phrase  that  in  its  form  of  ex- 
pression is  peculiar  to  a  given  language.  Usually  it  cannot  be 
translated  literally  into  another  language.  Many  idioms  can- 
not be  justified  by  the  strict  rules  of  grammar,  although  long- 
continued  and  general  usage  has  established  them  as  reputable. 
They  frequently  possess  a  rugged,  homely  strength  that  adds 
greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  speech  and  writing.  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  examples  of  familiar  English  idioms: 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  LARGE  VOCABULARY     335 

hard  put  to  it              jor  in  great  extremity 

get  rid  of  jor  free  oneself  from 

get  used  to  jor  become  accustomed  to 

get  ready  jor  prepare 

pull  through  jor  succeed,  recover,  survive 

put  through  jor  consummate 

219.  Synonyms  and  antonyms.  Synonyms  are  words  of  sim- 
ilar meaning.  Though  several  words  may  convey  the  same 
general  idea,  each  word  has  its  own  particular  force  and  appli- 
cation. A  careful  comparison  of  the  precise  meaning  of  such 
words  as  aged,  antique,  antiquated,  archaic,  obsolete,  ancient, 
and  old  will  illustrate  this  fact.  Antonyms  are  words  of  oppo- 
site meaning,  such  as  plenty  and  want,  pain  and  pleasure, 
honor  and  shame,  weakness  and  strength.  English  is  unusually 
rich  in  synonyms  and  antonyms,  owing  to  the  fact  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  Anglo-Saxon  words,  it  has  many  equivalent  and  con- 
trasting terms  acquired  from  other  languages.  A  study  of 
synonyms  and  antonyms  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  increasing 
our  vocabulary  and  of  enabling  ourselves  to  speak  and  write 
with  greater  accuracy. 

EXERCISES 


Make  a  list  of  twenty  idioms  found  in  your  conversation  and  in 
your  reading. 

II 

Find  in  an  unabridged  dictionary  the  source  and  the  exact  shade 
of  meaning  of  each  word  in  the  following  pairs  of  synonyms,  and 
use  each  word  correctly  in  a  sentence : 

destroy,  annihilate  learned,  erudite 

queer,  eccentric  fire,  conflagration 

thin,  emaciated  round,  circular 

play,  drama  brave,  valorous 

sharp,  acute  fat,  corpulent 


336  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III 

Find  in  an  unabridged  dictionary  the  exact  shade  of  meaning  of 
the  synonyms  in  the  following  groups  and  use  each  word  correctly 
in  a  sentence : 

1.  abandon,  desert,  forsake 

2.  avow,  acknowledge,  confess,  admit 

3.  absolve,  exonerate,  acquit 

4.  account,  report,  narration,  recital 

5.  sufficient,  enough 

6.  pale,  pallid,  wan 

7.  opportunity,  occasion 

8.  kill,  murder,  assassinate,  execute,  slaughter 

220.  How  to  acquire  a  large  vocabulary.  To  obtain  a  large 
vocabulary  we  must  possess  or  develop  a  lively  and  persistent 
interest  in  words.  We  should,  moreover,  be  constantly  on  the 
alert  for  new  ideas  and  new  ways  of  expressing  our  thoughts. 
Such  an  interest  and  attitude  will  enable  us  to  discover  the  best 
means  of  making  new  words  our  own. 

There  is  great  disparity  between  the  number  of  words  which 
we  understand  in  conversation  and  in  reading  and  the  number 
which  we  ourselves  use.  This  disparity  is  due  in  part  to  the 
narrow  range  of  topics  to  which  most  of  us  confine  our  thinking 
and  talking;  in  part,  to  the  laziness  which  indisposes  us  to 
search  for  the  most  fitting  expressions;  and  not  infrequently  to 
a  foolish  shame,  which  keeps  us  from  using  the  best  we  know, 
for  fear  that  we  may  be  thought  affected  or  bookish.  Obviously, 
we  may  increase  our  active  vocabulary  by  consciously  making 
use  of  words  that  we  understand  but  have  heretofore  avoided. 
Our  ear-and-eye  vocabulary  is  continually  growing,  so  long  as 
we  associate  with  well-educated  speakers  and  writers,  and  it 
should  be  our  aim  to  make  our  active  vocabulary  keep  pace 
with  it. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  LARGE  VOCABULARY     337 

Frequent  conversation  with  persons  better  informed  than  we 
and  attentive  reading  in  the  works  of  reputable  authors  will 
acquaint  us  with  many  new  and  useful  words.  A  study  of  the 
dictionary  and  daily  reference  thereto  will  rapidly  augment  our 
stock  of  words.  Translation  from  a  foreign  language  and  the 
use  of  synonyms  for  words  already  in  our  active  vocabulary  are 
two  additional  means  of  growth.  Finally,  by  keeping  in  a  small 
notebook  all  the  new  words  we  wish  to  acquire,  and  by  using 
these  words  frequently  in  sentences,  we  may  establish  them 
permanently  in  our  vocabulary.  We  should  remember  that  not 
until  we  can  use  a  word  accurately  and  freely  is  it  really 
our  own. 

EXERCISES 

I 

During  the  next  week  make  a  list  of  ten  or  more  new  words  that 
you  hear  or  find  in  your  reading.  Learn  the  correct  meaning  of 
each  and  use  the  word  in  a  sentence. 

II 

What  does  the  author  of  "Self-Cultivation  in  English"  say  about 
the  importance  of  a  large  vocabulary  ?  What  suggestions  does  he 
give  for  acquiring  new  words  ? 


Ill 

Examine  closely  the  following  list  of  words  and  select  for  study 
those  words  that  you  are  unable  to  use  accurately  in  sentences  of 
your  own.  Learn  from  an  unabridged  dictionary  the  meaning  of 
each  of  these  words  and  use  the  word  in  a  sentence. 


accelerate 

derelict 

facilitate 

inert 

redolent 

charlatan 

ductile 

flaccid 

lucid 

requisite 

chortle 

emulate 

frugal 

mercenary 

resilient 

crafty 

evolve 

futile 

meticulous 

transient 

cursory 

expedite 

gnome 

nominal 

valid 

338  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

221.  Summary.  The  mastery  of  English  as  a  tool,  as  well 
as  our  mental  growth,  demands  that  we  acquire  a  large  stock  of 
words  which  we  can  use  intelligently.  We  should  aim  con- 
stantly at  increasing  not  only  the  number  of  words  that  we 
understand  but  particularly  the  number  of  words  that  we 
actually  use  in  speech  and  in  writing.  Our  vocabulary  will  in- 
clude both  Anglo-Saxon  and  classical  words.  The  study  of 
idioms,  synonyms,  and  antonyms  will  greatly  augment  our 
store  of  words. 

The  surest  way  of  attaining  a  good  vocabulary  is  to  develop  a 
lively  and  persistent  interest  in  words  and  carefully  to  observe 
the  usage  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  the  present  time. 
Translation  from  a  foreign  language,  the  regular  use  of  an  un- 
abridged dictionary,  and  the  keeping  of  a  list  of  new  words  in  a 
notebook  until  we  have  mastered  them  we  shall  find  particularly 
helpful  in  increasing  our  vocabulary. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY 

222.  Importance  of  the  study  of  the  dictionary.  Since  a  dic- 
tionary is  not  only  a  storehouse  of  words  but  also  an  authority 
as  to  the  usage  of  the  best  authors,  the  study  of  it  will  help  us 
to  improve  our  diction.  Many  of  us  are  not  familiar  enough 
with  this  valuable  aid  to  English  composition  to  understand  its 
real  worth.  It  may  be  well,  therefore,  for  us  to  consider  at  this 
point  the  proper  use  of  the  dictionary. 

223.  Unabridged  and  abridged  dictionaries.  From  our  first 
year  in  high  school  throughout  the  remainder  of  our  life  we 
should  have  ready  access  to  an  unabridged  dictionary  that  has 
been  recently  revised.  The  four  principal  English  unabridged 
dictionaries  now  in  common  use  are  the  following : 

1.  Webster's  New  International  Dictionary.  The  latest  re- 
vised edition  contains  four  hundred  thousand  words  ahd  is 
especially  practical  in  its  arrangement.  It  is  particularly  useful 
for  derivation  and  definition. 

2.  The  New  Standard  Dictionary.  This  includes  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  words  and  contains,  in  addition  to  defi- 
nitions, much  encyclopedic  material. 

3.  The  Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia.  Of  the  twelve 
volumes  in  which  it  is  published,  the  first  ten  contain  the 
dictionary  material.  Volume  XI  is  a  cyclopedia  of  names,  and 
Volume  XII  an  atlas  of  the  world. 

4.  A  New  English  Dictionary.  When  it  is  completed,  this 
dictionary  will  include  twenty  volumes.  It  is  comprehensive 
and  scholarly  and  is  considered  the  ultimate  authority  on 
correct  English  usage. 

339 


340  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  New  International  and  the  Standard,  each  complete 
in  one  volume,  we  shall  find  adequate  for  our  present  use. 

Though  we  may  not  individually  own  an  unabridged  dic- 
tionary, it  is  necessary  that  we  possess  a  personal  copy  of  an 
abridged  edition.  The  four  most  satisfactory  abridged  dic- 
tionaries are  the  following : 

i„  Webster's  Collegiate  Dictionary. 

2.  The  Concise  Oxford  Dictionary. 

3.  The  High-School  Standard  Dictionary. 

4.  The  College  Standard  Dictionary. 

224.  Arrangement  of  an  unabridged  dictionary.  Not  until 
we  have  made  a  careful  examination  of  its  system  of  arrange- 
ment and  the  character  of  its  contents  are  we  capable  of  using 
an  unabridged  dictionary  most  profitably.  Preceding  the  dic- 
tionary proper,  we  find,  are  (i)  a  brief  history  of  the  English 
language,  (2)  a  guide  to  pronunciation,  (3)  a  discussion  of 
the  established  rules  for  spelling,  (4)  a  list  of  the  abbreviations 
used  throughout  the  volume,  and  (5)  other  explanations  for 
our  guidance.  Following  the  dictionary  proper,  there  are 
usually  included  (i)  a  pronouncing  geographical  dictionary, 
(2)  a  pronouncing  biographical  dictionary,  (3)  a  list  of  the  arbi- 
trary signs  used  in  writing  and  printing,  and  (4)  a  section  of 
classified  pictorial  illustrations.  In  the  dictionary  proper,  across 
the  bottom  of  the  pages  facing  each  other,  is  given  a  key  to 
vowel  and  consonant  sounds.  Printed  in  capital  letters  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  is  the  first  word  on  the  page;  in  the 
upper  right-hand  corner  appears  the  last  word  on  the  page.  By 
a  glance  at  these  words  we  can  tell  whether  the  word  for  which 
we  are  looking  is  included  on  the  page  before  us.  Webster's  New 
International  Dictionary  has  each  page  divided  into  two  parts : 
the  upper  contains  familiar  words,  and  the  lower  contains,  in 
small  type,  unusual,  obsolete,  and  foreign  words.  If  we  fail  to 
find  a  word  in  one  division,  we  should  look  also  in  the  other. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY  341 

EXERCISES 
I 

Spend  at  least  one  hour  becoming  acquainted  with  the  arrange- 
ment and  system  of  the  unabridged  dictionary  that  you  use. 

II 
Find  the  meaning  of  the  following  abbreviations : 


a. 

adv. 

of. 

F. 

D. 

Gael. 

n. 

prep. 

AS.,  A-S. 

Sp. 

Dan. 

Teut. 

V.  t. 

conj. 

ME. 

Slav. 

Celt. 

Pol. 

V.  i. 

pron. 

L.,  Lat. 

It. 

OF. 

Icel. 

p.  a. 

fr. 

Gr. 

G. 

O.H.G. 

Hind, 

III 

The  most  common  marks  used  in  indicating  vowel  sounds  are 
the  macron  (nation)  ;  the  breve  (net)  ;  the  diaeresis  {zoology) ; 
the  dot  (ask) ;  the  wave  (fern)  ;  the  circumflex  (urn)  ;  the  cedilla 
(fagade).  Make  a  neat  list  of  all  the  vowel  and  consonant  sounds 
properly  marked,  with  a  word  to  illustrate  each. 

IV 

Find  the  pronunciation  of  the  following  proper  names  and  any 
additional  information  about  them  that  is  available: 

Beauchamp         Guadalajara  Medici         Ouida  Rouen 

Benoit  Majori  Murillo        Rheims        San  Jose 

225.  Information  about  words.  In  the  dictionary  proper  of 
an  unabridged  dictionary  we  have  access  to  the  following  use- 
ful information  about  words : 

I.  Spelling.  If  two  or  more  forms  of  spelling  are  permissible, 
we  should  select  the  preferred  form,  which  is  placed  first.  In 
addition  to  the  spelling  of  the  basal  words,  we  find  also  the 
spelling  of  (i)  the  remaining  principal  parts  of  verbs;  (2)  the 


342  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

plurals  and  case  forms  of  nouns  and  pronouns;  (3)  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  forms  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

2.  Pronunciation.  If  more  than  one  pronunciation  is  per- 
missible, the  preferred  form  is  placed  first. 

3.  Part  of  speech.  Immediately  following  the  pronunciation 
comes  an  abbreviation  indicating  the  part  of  speech  to  which 
the  word  belongs.  Many  words  are  used  as  different  parts  of 
speech.  If  we  know  the  part  of  speech  to  which  the  word 
that  we  are  looking  for  belongs,  we  should  proceed  imme- 
diately to  the  word  so  classified ;  otherwise  we  should  examine 
various  meanings  of  the  word  until  we  have  found  a  meaning 
that  seems  consistent  with  the  context  in  which  the  word  stands. 

4.  Derivation  and  history  of  words.  If  this  information  is 
not  given,  look  back  to  the  first  of  the  series  of  words  derived 
from  the  root  in  question.  A  knowledge  of  the  derivation  of  a 
word  is  usually  an  aid  to  precision  of  diction.  Frequently,  how- 
ever, a  word  has  had  successive  meanings  in  the  course  of  its 
history  and  may  at  the  present  time  be  used  in  a  sense  not 
readily  associated  with  its  original  meaning.  Such  words  as 
urbane,  prevent,  miser,  impertinent,  censure,  reduce,  and  depart 
illustrate  changes  in  meaning. 

5.  Various  meanings.  These  are  systematically  classified  and 
are  preceded  by  the  figures  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  If  a  word  has  a 
technical  use,  this  is  indicated  by  a  word  or  an  abbreviation 
placed  before  the  definition,  such  as  Law,  Engin.,  Med.,  Astron., 
Arch.,  Pol.  Econ.  These  abbreviations  are  listed  in  the  early 
pages  of  the  dictionary. 

6.  The  standing  of  words.  Words  that  are  not  in  good  use 
or  are  restricted  in  use  have  this  fact  indicated  by  a  word  or  an 
abbreviation  placed  after  the  definition.  Such  words  and  abbre- 
viations include  Obs.,  Colloq.,  Dial.,  U.  S.,  Rare,  Cant,  Slang. 
If  the  standing  of  a  word  is  not  given,  it  may  be  assumed  to  be 
in  good  use. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY 


343 


7.  Illustrations  of  the  use  of  words.  Many  of  the  uses  of 
words  are  illustrated  by  quotations  from  various  writers, 

8.  Synonyms  and  antonyms.  Frequently  a  list  of  synonyms, 
sometimes  of  antonyms  also,  is  placed  after  the  last  definition. 

9.  Reference.  Following  the  list  of  synonyms  there  is  often 
a  reference  to  a  word  or  an  illustration  in  another  part  of  the 
dictionary.  Such  references  are  indicated  by  See,  Cf.,  and  q.  v. 

10.  Combinations  with  other  words.  Last  of  all,  there  is  a 
list  of  established  phrases  in  which  the  word  in  question  is  used. 
In  the  New  International  Dictionary  the  word  false  is  followed 
by  such  phrases  as  false  action,  f.  analogy,  f.  cadence,  f.  face, 
/.  perspective,  f.  representation. 


EXERCISES 

Find  the 

meaning 

I 

of  the  following  abbreviations: 

Anat. 

Class. 

Geom.          Moham. 

Pharm. 

Sw. 

Arch. 

Dyn. 

Jew.              Mus. 

Psychol. 

Theat. 

Biog. 

Eccl. 

Math.           Ornith. 

Relig. 

Theol. 

Biol. 

Her. 

Metal.          Paleon. 

Surg. 

Topog. 

Bot. 

Geol. 

Micros.        Pari. 

Surv. 

T>TD0g. 

II 

In  an  unabridged  dictionary  find  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
each  of  the  following  words.  If  two  pronunciations  are  given,  notice 
which  is  preferable.  Make  special  note  of  those  words  that  you 
are  in  the  habit  of  mispronouncing. 


acclimated 

clique 

disreputable 

formidable 

address 

combatant 

drought 

genuine 

adult 

condolence 

entire 

hearth 

almond 

deference 

express 

hospitable 

alternate 

despicable 

exquisite 

idea 

applicable 

discourse 

finance 

illustrate 

344 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


illustrative 

irrelevant 

precedence 

salmon 

incomparable 

lamentable 

precedent 

sergeant 

inexplicable 

larynx 

recess 

sough 

infamous 

literature 

resource 

vagary 

inquiry 

medieval 

rinse 

vehemently 

interesting 

mischievous 

III 

romance 

zoology 

In  an  unabridged  dictionary  find 

the  derivation, 

history,  and 

standing  of  each  of  the  following  words : 

alcohol 

chortle 

home 

rathe 

apron 

churl 

ingot 

salary 

artesian 

dago 

journey 

siesta 

atlas 

dahlia 

knave 

silly 

bedlam 

disaster 

madame 

sincere 

benefactor 

doff 

maize 

sugar 

biscuit 

don 

maudlin 

taboo 

bishop 

doom 

meander 

tantalize 

bombast 

drink 

mercerize 

tawdry 

boycott 

echo 

mermaid 

tell 

burglarize 

explode 

miniature 

thug 

cab 

fain 

mob 

torture 

candidate 

feat 

parasol 

transpire 

candy 

fee 

parson 

trencher 

casualty 

fiasco 

Pasteurize 

umbrella 

cathedral 

focus 

petulant 

umpire 

cavalier 

garlic 

piano 

venison 

cereal 

gas 

poet 

villain 

chaos 

handkerchief 

pyjama 

walrus 

cheese 

hector 

quixotic 

welcome 

226.  Summary.  Intelligent  use  of  an  unabridged  dictionary 
requires  that  we  learn  its  system  of  arrangement  and  the  char- 
acter of  its  contents.  In  consulting  the  dictionary  we  should 
avail  ourselves  of  all  the  information  given  about  each  particu- 
lar word.  By  so  doing  we  increase  our  command  over  the  word 
and  quicken  our  interest  in  word  study. 


PART  THREE 

CHAPTER  XVI 
SIMPLE  NARRATION 

227.  Simple  narration  defined.  Simple  narration  is  the  re- 
counting? of  an  event  or  of  a  series  of  events.  The  incidents  that 
compose  a  simple  narration  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  time ; 
that  is,  they  are  related  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence.  If, 
as  in  most  simple  narrations,  the  events  are  actual  happenings 
in  real  life,  we  call  the  account  a  yiarrative  of  fact.  But  if,  as 
in  a  few  instances,  the  entire  story  is  the  product  of  the  author's 
imagination,  we  call  it  a  narrative  of  fiction. 

Of  all  the  forms  of  writing,  simple  narration  is  the  easiest 
and  most  natural  in  composition.  Like  the  rest  of  mankind,  we 
enjoy  relating  our  experiences  and  observations,  as  well  as  lis- 
tening to  or  reading  those  of  others.  Moreover,  we  like  to  hear 
and  to  read  accounts  of  romantic  imaginary  adventures  that 
few,  if  any,  human  beings  have  ever  experienced.  For  these 
reasons  narration  is  more  extensively  written  and  more  widely 
read  than  any  other  type  of  literature. 

228.  The  three  essentials  of  simple  narration.  A  simple  nar- 
rative answers  four  questions ;  namely,  When  ?  Where  1  Who  ? 
and  What  ?  In  other  words,  the  narrator,  in  order  to  relate  an 
event  or  a  series  of  events  effectively,  must  inform  his  hearers 
and  readers  as  to  the  time  and  the  place  at  which  the  incidents 
occurred,  the  persons  or  the  animals  that  took  part  in  the  action, 
and  the  series  of  incidents  that  constitute  the  narrative.  This 
information  is  expected  and  demanded.    Unless  these  questions 

345 


346  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

are  satisfactorily  answered  either  by  statement  or  by  implica- 
tion, the  narrative  is  vague  and  uninteresting. 

The  three  essentials  of  simple  narration  are,  therefore,  set- 
ting, characters,  and  action.  Usually  at  the  beginning  of  his 
narrative  the  author  answers  the  first  two  questions  and  adds 
any  explanatory  and  descriptive  details  that  he  thinks  are 
necessary  to  the  proper  understanding  of  the  time  and  the 
place  of  the  action.  In  answering  the  first  two  questions  the 
narrator  may  partially  or  wholly  answer  the  third  question. 
That  is,  he  may  indicate  one  or  more  of  the  actors,  or  characters, 
in  the  narrative.  If  he  does  not  mention  all  his  characters  at  the 
beginning,  he  will  introduce  others  later  as  they  are  needed. 
Generally  the  real  narrative,  which  is  the  account  of  the  char- 
acters in  action  and  of  the  outcome  of  this  action,  begins  with 
the  mention  of  the  first  character.  The  story  from  this  point  to 
the  end  constitutes  the  answer  to  the  fourth  question. 

Life  and  movement  are  vital  elements  in  all  narration.  For 
this  reason  the  narrator  should  avoid  introducing  any  unneces- 
sary explanation  or  description,  since  these  tend  to  retard  the 
movement  of  the  story. 

The  following  simple  narrative  illustrates  very  well  the  three 
essentials  of  simple  narration  that  we  have  been  considering. 

WHEN  BULL  SNAKE  AND  RATTLER  MEET 

One  evening  in  summer  several  years  ago,  while  I  was  en  my  way 
to  look  at  a  trawling-line  that  I  had  set  for  whitefish  in  the  North 
Platte  River,  I  observed  a  commotion  among  my  sheep,  which  were 
grazing  near  by.  I  knew  at  once  that  a  rattlesnake  was  among 
them,  for  I  could  hear  the  rattles ;  but  a  moment  or  two  later  near 
the  bank  of  the  river  I  heard  a  noise  of  a  different  kind.  On  hurry- 
ing toward  it  I  found  a  huge  bull  snake  that  was  lashing  his 
head  hither  and  thither  in  a  frenzied  attempt  to  disgorge  an 
overgrown  toad. 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  347 

Just  then  I  remembered  the  rather  common  tradition  that  bull 
snakes  and  rattlers  are  deadly  enemies,  and,  grabbing  the  big  fellow 
and  thrusting  him  into  a  burlap  bag  I  had  expected  to  put  my  fish 
into,  I  ran  at  top  speed  to  the  place  where  I  had  heard  the  rattler. 
I  found  him ;  he  was  a  gigantic  fellow,  thickset,  powerful  of  jaw, 
and  at  least  six  feet  long, 

I  dropped  my  bag,  and  out  came  the  bull  snake,  free  from  the 
toad.  He  advanced  threateningly  toward  me,  but  in  a  moment  the 
rattlesnake  sounded  his  rattles,  and  like  a  flash  the  bull  snake 
turned.  Raising  his  head  a  foot  or  more,  he  remained  quite  motion- 
less as  if  he  were  listening.  Another  buzz  perhaps  twenty  feet 
away,  and  the  bull  snake  knew  where  his  enemy  was.  With  a  rush 
as  if  he  were  dropping  from  a  height,  he  started  for  the  rattler, 
which  turned  and  lied.  Fearing  that  he  would  disappear  into  a 
hole,  I  ran  to  head  him  off ;  but  the  precaution  was  not  necessary. 
The  bull  snake  quickly  gained  on  him.  When  the  snakes  were 
perhaps  six  feet  apart,  they  stopped  and  remained  perfectly  still. 
At  the  end  of  perhaps  a  minute  the  rattlesnake  suddenly  drew  him- 
self into  a  coil,  and  the  bull  snake  started  to  circle  the  quarry, 
keeping  about  six  feet  from  it.  Gradually  the  bull  snake  moved 
faster  and  decreased  the  size  of  the  circle,  and  all  the  w-hile  among 
the  coils  at  the  center  there  was  a  humming  and  a  buzzing  of  rattles 
such  as  I  had  never  heard  before.  The  flat  triangular  head  of  the 
rattler  was  almost  hidden  and  lifted  only  occasionally;  whenever 
it  did  lift,  the  little  eyes  would  blaze  and  scintillate. 

When  the  bull  snake  had  almost  encircled  his  foe  with  his  length, 
he  suddenly  drew  himself  together  in  a  coil  like  that  of  his  victim's, 
and  from  the  midst  of  it  raised  and  lowered  his  glistening,  egg- 
shaped  head.  Never  had  I  imagined  so  much  fury,  such  terrible 
ferocity !  The  two  writhing  masses  approached  each  other,  and 
the  hissing  and  the  rattling  ceased.  The  head  of  the  rattlesnake 
began  warily  to  emerge.  Then  the  two  heads  lifted  a  foot  and  came 
together  with  an  impact  almost  like  that  which  a  baseball  bat  makes 
when  it  strikes  a  baseball.  For  a  time  both  snakes  were  so  active 
that  you  could  not  see  which  had  hold  of  the  other.  The  two 
masses  intertwined  and  lashed  and  tumbled  and  thrashed  the  earth 
too  rapidly  for  the  eye  to  follow. 


348  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Then  the  movements  became  almost  imperceptibly  less  violent, 
and  I  could  see  that  the  bull  snake  had  hold  of  his  antagonist  two 
inches  behind  the  head.  The  rattler  was  vainly  trying  to  embed  his 
fangs  in  his  adversary ;  both  fangs,  almost  an  inch  long,  were  in 
plain  sight.  His  head  was  almost  flat ;  his  beady  eyes  looked  as  if 
they  would  shoot  out  like  his  forked  tongue. 

Suddenly  the  bull  snake  made  a  terrific  lunge,  and  his  entire 
length  shot  to  the  other  side  of  his  enemy,  which  now  lay  stretched 
in  the  opposite  direction.  For  a  moment  both  lay  outstretched ; 
then  the  bull  snake  moved  weakly  away  in  the  direction  of  the 
marsh.  With  his  head  bent  back  double,  the  rattler  writhed  in  his 
last  throes. 

I  followed  the  victor,  but  he  had  not  gone  far  before  he  stopped 
and  drew  his  whole  length  up  into  lumps  almost  like  knots ;  then 
he  turned  on  his  back.  By  the  fading  light  I  could  see  many  little 
pricks,  dark  with  blood.  The  venomed  fangs  of  the  rattler  had 
pierced  him  in  many  places.  Before  long  he  ceased  to  move.  I  re- 
turned to  the  scene  of  the  fight,  and  there  lay  the  rattler  dead. 
The  big  toad,  the  unwitting  cause  of  the  struggle,  was  the  sole 
survivor  of  the  tragedy. —  Youth's  Companion 

EXERCISE 

In  the  simple  narrative  that  you  have  read  point  out  the  three 
essentials  explained  above  and  show  by  reference  to  specific  details 
how  the  narrator  answered  the  four  questions  that  all  simple  narra- 
tion should  answer. 

229.  Unity  in  simple  narration.  The  principle  of  unity  as 
applied  to  simple  narration  requires  that  in  each  narrative  only 
one  event  or  one  series  of  events  forming  a  single  story  be  re- 
lated. That  is,  the  narrative  that  we  relate,  whether  long  or 
short,  must  be  a  unit,  a  single  complete  story.  To  satisfy  this 
requirement,  we  should  examine  carefully  the  material  that  we 
contemplate  using  and  should  decide  on  the  story  that  we  intend 
to  tell.  In  this  preliminary  process  we  shall  find  ourselves 
greatly  aided  by  answering  the  following  questions : 


THE  PIRATE 
From  an  etching  by  Rodney  Thomson 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  349 

1.  At  what  point  should  I  begin  this  narrative? 

2.  At  what  point  should  I  end  it? 

3.  What  incidents  properly  belong  to  my  story? 

4.  What  point  of  view  should  I  select? 

In  answering  the  first  and  the  second  question  we  are  estab- 
lishing the  boundaries  of  our  narrative.  Since  life  and  move- 
ment are  vital  elements  in  narration,  we  should  begin  our  story 
directly,  with  the  first  incident  of  the  series  of  happenings  that 
properl}-  belong  to  our  narrative.  As  soon  as  we  have  told  our 
story  we  should  bring  it  to  a  close.  In  simple  narration,  as  in 
all  other  forms  of  writing,  the  beginning  and  ending  should  be 
natural  and  appropriate. 

In  answering  the  third  question  we  should  keep  in  mind  the 
limits  that  we  have  set  ourselves  in  choosing  the  points  at  which 
to  begin  and  to  end  our  story.  Only  the  incidents  falling  within 
these  limits,  and  only  those  essential  to  the  effective  telling  of 
our  story,  should  be  selected.  By  means  of  a  carefully  prepared 
list  of  incidents  we  should  be  able  to  select  those  that  are 
necessary. 

The  choice  of  the  proper  point  of  view  we  shall  usually  find 
easy  and  natural.  If  we  are  relating  personal  experiences  in 
which  we  have  been  the  principal  actor,  we  shall  generally 
choose  the  first-person  point  of  view.  But  if  we  are  narrating 
events  in  which  we  have  played  only  a  minor  part,  which  we 
have  observed  at  the  time  of  their  occurrence,  or  which  we  have 
merely  heard  of  later,  we  shall  adopt  the  third-person  point  of 
view.  When,  as  the  all-knowing  author,  we  not  only  relate  what 
we  observed  and  what  our  characters  did,  but  tell,  besides,  what 
they  thought  and  how  they  felt,  we  employ  the  omniscient  third- 
person  point  of  view.  We  shall  generally  use  the  past  or  past- 
perfect  tense.  Our  point  of  view,  which  will  depend  upon  our 
relation  to  the  story,  should  be  consistently  maintained  through- 
out the  narrative. 


350  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Show  how  the  writer  of  the  simple  narrative  given  above  satisfied 
the  demands  of  unity.  Did  he  Hmit  himself  to  teUing  one  and 
only  one  story?  Note  carefully  the  beginning  and  the  ending. 
Point  out  the  incidents  that  make  up  the  narrative  proper.  From 
what  point  of  view  is  the  narrative  written  ? 

230.  Coherence  in  simple  narration.  Coherence  in  simple 
narration  requires  that  the  incidents  that  make  up  the  narrative 
be  recorded  in  the  order  in  which  they  happen.  This  does  not 
mean  that  we  are  to  include  all  the  incidents  composing  the 
actual  happening,  but  that  we  should  arrange  in  chronological 
order  those  incidents  which  are  really  necessary  in  making  our 
narrative  clear  and  effective.  All  preliminary  and  intervening 
incidents  that  would  hinder  the  movement  and  detract  from  the 
main  point  of  our  story  should  be  omitted. 

EXERCISE 

Show  how  the  principle  of  coherence  was  applied  by  the  writer 
of  the  simple  narrative  given  above.  Are  the  incidents  arranged  in 
strict  chronological  order  ?    Show  that  your  answer  is  correct. 

231.  Emphasis  in  simple  narration.  Since  the  beginning  and 
the  end  are  the  most  important  parts  of  a  composition,  we 
should  make  the  introduction  and  the  conclusion  of  a  narrative 
as  interesting  as  possible.  We  are  not  able,  however,  to  put  in 
these  places  the  chief  event  of  the  narrative,  for  that  forms  the 
body  of  the  story.  On  account  of  this  fact  proportion  is  highly 
important.  We  should  give  the  greatest  amount  of  space  to  the 
principal  incident  and  should  allot  space  to  the  remaining  inci- 
dents according  to  their  relative  importance. 

Climax  is  an  additional  means  of  securing  emphasis.  In  so 
far  as  the  chronological  order  will  permit,  we  should  arrange 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  351 

incidents  in  such  a  manner  that  the  interest  is  continually  in- 
creased until  the  highest  point  of  the  narrative  is  reached.  We 
should  therefore  subordinate  earlier  details,  so  that  more  atten- 
tion may  be  later  given  to  incidents  of  greater  importance. 
We  should  ask  ourselves :  What  is  the  chief  thing  that  the  char- 
acters in  this  narrative  are  going  to  do?  What  is  the  real  point 
of  my  story?  Having  satisfactorily  answered  these  questions, 
we  should  model  the  narrative  in  such  a  way  that  due  promi- 
nence will  be  given  to  this  main  point,  which  should  come  at  the 
end  or  very  near  the  end  of  our  story.  We  should  arouse  the 
curiosity  of  our  hearer  or  reader  early  in  the  narrative  and 
should  keep  him  in  suspense  as  to  the  main  point  or  the  outcome 
until  the  end  is  reached.  We  should  at  all  times  carefully  avoid 
revealing  this  point  too  early  in  the  story. 

EXERCISE 

Show  how  emphasis  was  secured  by  the  writer  of  the  simple  nar- 
rative given  above.  Are  the  beginning  and  the  end  effective  ?  Were 
the  incidents  given  their  correct  proportion  of  space  ?  Comment  on 
the  use  of  climax  and  suspense.  Did  the  writer  reveal  the  point  of 
his  narrative  too  early  ? 

232.  Oral  narration.  In  general,  the  principles  governing 
oral  and  written  narration  are  identical.  In  both,  carefully 
chosen  incidents,  recorded  in  proper  sequence  and  arranged 
effectively,  are  essential.  In  both,  life  and  movement  are  indis- 
pensable. Though  most  of  us  have  had  more  practice  in  oral 
narration  than  in  any  other  form  of  composition,  we  should  try 
to  improve  our  skill  in  telling  a  good  story  well.  We  should 
give  just  as  much  consideration  to  choosing  and  arranging  the 
incidents  in  oral  as  in  written  narration.  We  ought  to  strive  at 
all  times  to  enliven  our  narration  by  the  use  of  concrete  words, 
vividly  suggestive  figures  of  speech,  and  direct  conversation 


352  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

whenever  it  seems  natural  and  appropriate.  We  should  never 
mar  a  good  story  by  slovenly  narration.  (For  suggestions  as  to 
the  method  of  giving  oral  compositions  see  section  ii.) 

ORAL  EXERCISE 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  an  oral  narration  based  on  one 
of  the  following  suggested  subjects  or  on  a  subject  of  your  own 

choice : 

1.  A  Practical  Joke. 

2.  The  Greatest  Scare  I  Ever  Had. 

3.  An  Animal  Hero  (or  Heroine). 

4.  When  I  Almost  Poisoned  the  Family. 

5.  A  Novel  Vacation  Experience. 

6.  An  Accident  I  Recently  Witnessed. 

7.  My  Most  Costly  Mistake. 

8.  The  Consequences  of  a  Lie. 

233.  Material  for  narration.  The  subject  matter  for  narra- 
tives may  be  obtained  from  three  principal  sources;  namely, 
first-hand  experience,  reading,  and  imagination. 

1.  Experience.  Our  experience  includes  not  only  events  in 
which  we  have  had  some  part,  whether  important  or  unimpor- 
tant, but  also  events  of  which  we  have  been  spectators.  Few  of 
us  have  passed  through  romantic  or  exciting  adventures,  but  we 
have  taken  part  in  athletic  contests,  or  have  had  enjoyable  or 
unpleasant  experiences  in  the  woods,  on  the  road,  and  on  fishing 
trips  and  hunting  trips,  besides  scores  of  everyday  adventures. 
We  have  observed  many  other  persons  in  the  midst  of  accidents 
or  other  novel  experiences.  All  this  material  is  available  for  our 
use  in  narration. 

2.  Reading.  From  our  reading  we  may  gain  many  useful 
suggestions  for  narratives.  The  reports  of  various  events  in  the 
newspapers  and  on  the  motion-picture  screen  will  yield  us  a 
large  harvest  of  novel  ideas.  We  shall  often  find  it  highly  en- 
tertaining to  expand  some  dull  statement  of  fact  into  a  lively 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  353 

narrative  by  assuming  the  point  of  view  of  one  of  the  characters 
and  employing  vivid  conversation.  The  retelling  of  episodes 
from  stories  which  are  read  at  school  or  at  home  is  useful 
practice.  History  and  biography  will  often  furnish  us  equally 
valuable  material. 

3.  Imagination.  At  first  our  narratives  may  be  little  more 
than  mere  narratives  of  fact.  With  more  experience,  however, 
we  shall  be  likely  to  add  details  from  our  imagination  as  a 
means  of  expanding  and  enlivening  our  stories.  Occasionally 
we  may  be  able  to  construct  fictitious  narratives  out  of  inci- 
dents that  we  have  invented  by  means  of  our  imagination.  We 
shall  find  the  writing  of  both  narratives  of  fact  and  narratives 
of  fiction  profitable  and  entertaining. 

234.  Dialogue  in  narration.  Dialogue,  or  conversation,  is 
often  employed  in  narration  to  render  the  action  more  vivid 
and  the  characters  more  lifelike.  In  addition,  it  enables  us  to 
avoid  the  monotony  of  having  the  entire  narrative  related  di- 
rectly by  the  author.  In  writing  dialogue  we  should  be  careful 
to  paragraph  and  punctuate  correctly  what  each  speaker  says 
(see  section  83). 

235.  Principal  types  of  simple  narration.  Incidents  may  be 
narrated  in  both  verse  and  prose.  In  our  present  study  of  com- 
position we  shall  consider,  however,  only  narratives  written  in 
prose.  If  we  exclude  histories,  the  most  comprehensive  form  of 
simple  narration,  there  remain  eight  principal  types  for  us  to 
examine ;  namely,  anecdotes,  tales,  news  stories,  letters,  diaries, 
biographies,  autobiographies,  and  travel  sketches. 

236.  Anecdotes.  The  anecdote  is  the  simplest  and  briefest 
t)^e  of  simple  narration.  It  relates  concisely  and  pointedly  a 
single  event.  As  soon  as  this  has  been  done  it  should  end. 
Many  of  the  best  anecdotes  record  a  humorous  situation  or 
a  dramatic  incident.  The  brief,  simple  narrative  given  on 
pages  346-348  is  an  anecdote. 


354  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Biographies,  autobiographies,  and  other  personal  reminis- 
cences include  a  large  number  of  anecdotes,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing illustration  chosen  from  the  autobiography  of  Edward  Bok: 

Transportation,  in  those  days  [between  1870  and  1880]  in 
Brooklyn,  was  by  horse  cars,  and  the  car  line  on  Smith  Street 
nearest  Edward's  home  ran  to  Coney  Island.  Just  around  the  cor- 
ner where  Edward  lived,  the  horse  cars  stopped  to  water  the  horses 
on  their  long  haul.  The  boy  noticed  that  the  men  jumped  from 
the  open  cars  in  summer,  ran  into  the  cigar  store  before  which  the 
watering-trough  was  placed,  and  got  a  drink  of  water  from  the  ice- 
cooler  placed  near  the  door.  But  that  was  not  so  easily  possible 
for  the  women,  and  they,  especially  the  children,  were  forced  to 
take  the  long  ride  without  a  drink. 

Here  was  an  opening,  and  Edward  decided  to  fill  it.  He  bought 
a  shining  new  pail,  screwed  three  hooks  on  the  edge,  from  which 
he  hung  three  clean,  shimmering  glasses,  and  one  Saturday  after- 
noon, when  a  car  stopped,  the  boy  leaped  on,  tactfully  asked  the 
conductor  if  he  did  not  want  a  drink,  and  then  proceeded  to  sell  his 
water,  cooled  with  ice,  at  a  cent  a  glass  to  the  passengers.  A  little 
experience  showed  that  he  exhausted  a  pall  with  every  two  cars, 
and  each  pail  netted  him  thirty  cents.  Of  course  Sunday  was  a 
most  profitable  day ;  and  after  going  to  Sunday  school  in  the  morn- 
ing, he  did  a  further  Sabbath  service  for  the  rest  of  the  day  by 
refreshing  tired  mothers  and  thirsty  children  on  the  Coney  Island 
cars — at  a  penny  a  glass ! 

But  the  profit  of  six  dollars  which  Edward  was  now  reaping  in 
his  newly  found  "bonanza"  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  afternoons 
became  apparent  to  other  boys,  and  one  Saturday  the  young  ice- 
water  boy  found  that  he  had  a  competitor ;  then  two  and  soon 
three.  Edward  immediately  met  the  challenge ;  he  squeezed  half 
a  dozen  lemons  into  each  pail  of  water,  added  some  sugar,  tripled 
his  charge,  and  continued  his  monopoly  by  selling  ''Lemonade, 
three  cents  a  glass."  Soon  more  passengers  were  asking  for  lem^on- 
ade  than  for  plain  drinking-water! — Edward  Bok,  "The  Ameri- 
canization of  Edward  Bok"^ 

1  Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


SEVIPLE  NARRATION  355 

EXERCISES 
I 

Relate  to  the  class  orally  a  good  anecdote  that  you  have  recently 
heard  or  read. 

II 

Relate  to  the  class  orally  an  original  anecdote  based  on  your 
own  experience  or  observation.  The  following  suggestions  may  help 
you  to  find  a  subject : 

1.  A  Case  of  Absent-mindedness. 

2.  Judging  by  Appearances. 

3.  An  Embarrassing  Mistake. 

4.  When  I  Answered  an  Advertisement. 

5.  A  Novel  Method  of  Earning  Money. 

6.  Too  Obliging. 

7.  Heard  on  the  Party  Line. 

8.  An  Instance  of  Mistaken  Identity. 

Ill 

Write  an  anecdote  of  not  more  than  three  hundred  words  based 
on  an  incident  observed 

1.  On  the  street. 

2.  At  a  public  gathering. 

3.  In  the  park. 

4.  At  home. 

5.  On  the  athletic  field. 

IV 

Write  an  anecdote  of  not  more  than  three  hundred  words  sug- 
gested by  one  of  the  pictures  in  this  book. 

237.  Tales.  A  tale  consists  of  a  series  of  incidents  and  is 
much  longer  than  an  anecdote.  ]\Iost  true  stories  are  tales. 
The  incidents  form  the  stages,  or  steps,  in  the  larger  action 
which  the  tale  as  a  whole  recounts.   Usually  all  the  incidents 


356  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

concern  the  central  character,  or  hero.  A  little  skill  in  deciding 
where  to  begin  and  where  to  end  the  narrative,  together  with  ex- 
perience in  choosing  incidents,  will  enable  us  to  observe  accu- 
rately the  principle  of  unity  in  this  type  of  narration.  Such 
writers  as  Irving,  Hawthorne,  and  Jack  London  wrote  many 
tales,  as  well  as  numerous  short  stories. 

EXERCISES 
I 

Read  three  tales,  one  each  from  Irving,  Hawthorne,  and  Jack 
London,  or  from  some  other  writers  of  tales  whom  your  teacher  may 
recommend.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  relate  one  of  these  stories 
orally  to  the  class.    Explain  how  the  tale  differs  from  the  anecdote. 

II 

Write  a  tale  of  five  hundred  words  or  more  suggested  by  one  of 
the  following  subjects.  Before  you  begin  to  write,  decide  upon  the 
best  places  to  begin  and  end,  and  then  make  a  list  of  the  incidents 
that  your  narrative  should  include. 

1.  An  Automobile  Accident. 

2.  A  Memorable  Adventure. 

3.  Our  Burglar. 

4.  My  Uncle's  Most  Interesting  Adventure 

5.  A  Narrow  Escape. 

238.  News  stories.  The  news  story  is  a  special  form  of  sim- 
ple narrative.  In  length  it  ranges  from  a  brief  paragraph  to  an 
account  several  columns  long.  Since  the  editor  of  a  newspaper 
often  finds  it  necessary  because  of  lack  of  space  to  omit  the 
latter  part  of  a  news-writer's  story,  the  writer  places  the  most 
important  details  of  his  account  at  the  beginning,  generally 
in  the  first  paragraph.  In  the  remainder  of  his  narrative  he 
gives  the  less  important  details  arranged  in  the  descending 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  357 

order  of  their  importance.  So  well  established  has  this  practice 
become  that  the  experienced  reader  feels  that  he  has  the  essen- 
tials of  a  news  item  as  soon  as  he  has  read  the  headlines  and  the 
first  paragraph  or  two.  Because  of  this  peculiarity  of  structure, 
the  news  item  is  rarely  constructed  in  strict  accord  with  the 
principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  Owing  to  the 
haste  with  which  they  must  be  written,  news  stories  usually 
lack  the  organization  and  finish  of  other  types  of  narrative. 
The  following  selection  illustrates  the  brief  news  story: 

GIANT  METEOR  HITS  VIRGINIA 

Buries  Trees  Beneath  It  in  Depression  of  500  Square  Feet 

Had  Orange  Tail  with  Blue  Tip 

Norfolk,  Va.,  ISIay  12. — The  shock  of  a  20-ton  meteor  which 
crashed  to  the  ground  in  an  isolated  spot  in  Nottaway  county,  12 
miles  northwest  of  Blackstone,  late  last  night,  was  felt  for  a  radius 
of  50  miles,  while  the  brilliant  glare  of  the  incandescent  body 
illuminated  the  heavens  over  southern  Virginia  and  sections  of 
North  Carolina. 

The  trail  of  light  was  visible  in  this  city,  at  Richmond,  and  at 
points  along  the  James  river,  creating  general  excitement  among 
the  negroes. 

The  meteor,  composed  of  a  metallic  substance,  crashed  into  a 
grove  of  oak  trees  with  an  explosive  roar,  some  distance  from  any 
house,  making  a  hole  with  an  area  of  500  square  feet  and  burying 
several  trees  with  it.  Flames  immediately  shot  up,  which  were 
visible  for  many  miles,  while  trees  caught  fire. 

A  party  of  scientists  and  newspaper-men  immediately  left  Rich- 
mond and  this  city  for  the  scene,  which  is  120  miles  west  of  Norfolk. 

The  shock  of  the  fall  was  felt  at  Lawrenceville,  Petersburg. 
Chase  City,  and  other  points.  At  Lawrenceville,  100  miles  west  of 
here,  and  at  Chase  City  windows  were  rattled  and  houses  shaken. 

In  Norfolk  the  meteor  appeared  to  be  about  half  the  diameter  of 
the  full  moon  and  much  like  a  street  arc  light.    Its  tail,  of  orange 


358  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

brilliance,  with  a  sharp  blue  flame  fading  out  at  the  extreme  end, 
apparently  was  about  lo  or  12  times  as  long  and  fully  as  broad  as 
the  body.  It  fell  diagonally  from  the  zenith  and  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees.  The  downward  course  was  leisurely. — Boston 
Herald 

EXERCISES 

I 

Bring  to  class  a  good  brief  news  story  clipped  from  one  of  your 
state  or  local  papers.  Be  prepared  to  explain  its  structure.  Could 
you  make  a  better  simple  narrative  out  of  the  incidents  recorded 
than  the  news-writer  made  ?  If  so,  rewrite  the  news  story  and  bring 
both  versions  of  the  event  to  class. 


II 

As  a  reporter  for  your  school  or  town  paper  write  a  well-planned, 
interesting  news  story  of  about  three  hundred  words  based  on  one 
of  the  following  topics : 

1.  An  athletic  rally. 

2.  A  victory  of  a  school  athletic  team. 

3.  An  automobile  accident. 

4.  A  fire  in  your  town. 

5.  A  runaway  horse. 

6.  A  recently  discovered  crime. 

7.  An  insignificant  person  who  has  become  a  hero  (or  heroine). 

8.  Some  other  event  of  local  human  interest. 


Ill 

Write  a  brief  news  story  of  a  real  or  an  imagined  accident  sug- 
gested by  one  of  the  following  pictures : 

1.  Man's  Conquest  over  Nature    (facing  page   198). 

2.  The  Lights  of  Industry  (facing  page  402). 

3.  The  Skyscrapers   (facing  page  324). 

4.  Harvesting  Ice  (facing  page  258). 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  359 

239.  Letters.  Most  friendly  letters  contain  a  large  portion 
of  narration.  Though  the  letter  is  not  so  distinct  a  type  of 
narrative  writing  as  it  was  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  it  still  serves  a  very  important  narrative  purpose. 
Those  who  travel  write  to  friends  and  relatives  accounts  of 
interesting  incidents  connected  with  their  trip.  Those  left  be- 
hind relate  to  their  correspondents  what  is  going  on  at  home. 
Writers  have  occasionally  told  entire  stories  by  means  of  fic- 
titious letters.  It  was  thus  that  "Clarissa  Harlowe,"  an  early 
English  novel,  was  written.  "Daddy-Long-Legs"  and  "Marjo- 
rie  Daw"  are  more  recent  stories  narrated  by  means  of  letters. 
The  four  specimen  letters  (see  Chapter  VI)  written  by  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  and  by  the  two  student  writers  are  almost  en- 
tirely simple  narration. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Read  again  the  four  letters  mentioned  above  and  come  to  class 
prepared  to  discuss  them  as  examples  of  simple  narration. 

II 

Read  ''Marjorie  Daw,"  a  short  story  by  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich, 
as  an  example  of  a  story  narrated  by  means  of  letters  and  telegrams. 

Ill 

Write  one  of  the  following  letters,  giving  your  correspondent  a 
vivid,  entertaining  account  of  the  incidents  that  you  select : 

1.  A  letter  to  a  friend  or  a  relative  giving  an  account  of  the  most 
interesting  event  that  occurred  on  your  trip  last  summer. 

2.  A  letter  to  your  family  relating  a  thrilling  experience  you  have 
recently  had  on  a  hunting,  fishing,  or  camping  trip. 


36o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  A  letter  to  your  chum  telling  of  an  extraordinary  event  that  has 
occurred  since  he  or  she  left  home. 

4.  A  letter  to  a  friend  or  relative  recounting  an  act  of  bravery  or 
intelligence  on  the  part  of  a  dog  or  a  horse. 

5.  A  letter  relating  some  event  of  your  own  choice. 


IV 

Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  or  a  relative  giving  him  a  vivid,  enter- 
taining account  of  a  real  or  imagined  trip  suggested  by  one  of  the 
following  pictures : 

1.  Yosemite  Falls   (facing  page  370). 

2.  Camping  in  Colorado   (facing  page  116). 

3.  The  Dawn  of  a  New  Life   (frontispiece). 

4.  The  Lights  of  Industry   (facing  page  402). 

5.  Flotsam  Castle   (facing  page   296). 

240.  Diaries.  A  diary  is  an  intimate  daily  record  of  personal 
observations,  experiences,  and  impressions.  Its  chief  value  for 
the  writer,  who  is  usually  the  sole  reader,  consists  in  the  inti- 
macy of  style  and  the  sincerity  of  expression  with  which  it  is 
written.  One  of  the  most  famous  and  oft-quoted  diaries  is  that 
of  Samuel  Pepys,  an  English  government  official,  who,  during 
the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  recorded  in  his  diary 
not  only  incidents  of  his  daily  life  but  political  and  historical 
events  as  well.  We  shall  find  the  keeping  of  a  diary  valuable 
training  in  composition  if  we  put  our  best  effort  into  the  writing 
of  each  entry. 

241.  Biographies.  A  biography  is  the  life  history  of  one  per- 
son written  by  another.  A  biography  should  give  the  events  of 
a  person's  life;  should  show  the  influence  of  events  on  his 
character ;  should  give  an  account  of  his  ambition,  desires,  and 
purposes,  and  of  the  way  he  accomplished  them;  and  should 
enable  the  reader  to  look  at  the  man  from  different  points  of 
view  and  get  an  idea  of  his  various  qualities,  good  and  bad. 


SIMPLE  NARRATION  361 

Since  the  life  of  every  person  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  incidents, 
biography,  which  is  the  record  of  these  incidents,  is  largely 
simple  narration. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  biography  are 
Boswell's  ''Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,"  Lockhart's  ''Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,"  Forster's  "Life  of  Dickens,"  Irving's  "Life  of 
Goldsmith,"  Morse's  "Life  of  Lincoln,"  Cheney's  "Life  of 
Louisa  May  Alcott,"  and  G.  H.  Palmer's  "Life  of  Alice  Free- 
man Palmer." 

EXERCISES 


Read  some  brief  biography,  such  as  "John  Gilley,"  by  Charles 
W.  Eliot,  or  one  that  your  teacher  may  assign  you,  and  make  a  list 
of  the  chief  incidents  recorded.  Show  how  the  author  applied  the 
three  principles  of  correct  structure  in  writing  this  simple  narra- 
tive. Are  there  any  anecdotes  included  that  are  good  brief  narra- 
tives in  themselves  ? 

II 

Write  a  brief  biography  of  one  of  the  following  persons; 

1.  My  Younger  Sister  (or  Brother). 

2.  My  Chum. 

3.  My  Uncle  (or  Aunt). 

4.  Our  Scout  Master. 

5.  A  person  of  your  own  choice. 

242.  Autobiographies.  An  autobiography  is  a  life  history 
written  by  the  person  himself.  The  writer  frequently  con- 
structs the  story  of  his  life  by  relating  as  anecdotes  the  various 
significant  incidents  in  his  life.  By  adopting  the  first-person 
point  of  view  he  enables  him.self  to  write  in  an  easy,  conversa- 
tional style  and  to  relate  personal  anecdotes  that  would  other- 
wise be  out  of  place.  A  few  autobiographers,  like  Edward  Bok, 


362  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

have  chosen  the  third-person  point  of  view  in  order  to  speak 
more  freely  and  naturally  about  their  lives  and  experiences. 

Familiar  and  interesting  autobiographies  are  those  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Joseph  Jefferson,  and  Benvenuto  Cellini.  In 
recent  years  a  number  of  other  excellent  autobiographies  have 
been  written,  such  as  the  following:  "The  Story  of  my  Life," 
by  Helen  Keller ;  '^The  Promised  Land,"  by  Mary  Antin ,  "The 
Making  of  an  American,"  by  Jacob  Riis ;  and  "The  Americani- 
zation of  Edward  Bok,"  by  Edward  Bok. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Within  the  limits  of  five  pages  relate  the  chief  events  in  your  life. 
Try  to  select  incidents  that  will  entertain  your  readers  and  afford 
them  information  as  to  your  attainments,  character,  and  ambition 
in  life.    Write  naturally  and  observe  proper  proportion. 

II 

Write  a  brief  fictitious  biography  or  autobiography  of  a  person 
represented  in  one  of  the  following  pictures : 

1.  The  Pirate  (facing  page  348). 

2.  The  Village  Censor  (facing  page  382). 

3.  The  DawH  of  a  New  Life   (frontispiece). 

4.  Flotsam  Castle  (facing  page  296). 

243.  Travel  sketches.  Oral  and  written  accounts  of  travels 
have  from  very  early  times  been  an  interesting  type  of  narra- 
tive. Such  books  as  Stevenson's  "An  Inland  Voyage"  and 
"Travels  with  a  Donkey,"  Mark  Twain's  "Innocents  Abroad," 
and  H.  A.  Franck's  "A  Vagabond  Journey  around  the  World" 
furnish  delightful  reading.  Many  magazines,  such  as  the  Cen- 
tury and  the  National  Geographic  Magazine,  publish  brief 
travel  sketches  monthly.  In  general,  the  travel  sketch  contains 
as  much  description  as  narration. 


SIMPLE  NARR.^TION  363 

EXERCISES 

I 

Read  in  the  Century,  the  National  Geographic  Magazine,  or 
some  other  periodical  one  or  two  travel  sketches.  Note  the  use  of 
description  alon<^  with  narration.  Come  to  class  prepared  to  give 
orally  a  brief  summary  of  one  of  these  sketches. 

II 

Write  a  travel  sketch  on  one  of  the  following  topics,  properly 
limited,  and  illustrate  it  with  pictures  if  you  have  any  appropriate 
photographs : 

1.  Historic  New  England. 

2.  The  Spanish  Missions  of  the  Southwest. 

3.  Picturesque  Mexico. 

4.  California,  Florida,  or  Alaska. 

5.  A  subject  of  your  own  choice. 

Ill 

Write  a  travel  sketch  of  about  five  hundred  words  in  which  you 
might  use  one  or  more  of  the  following  pictures  as  illustrations : 

1.  Camping  in  Colorado   (facing  page    116). 

2.  Yosemite  Falls   (facing  page  370). 

3.  The  Sagebrush  of  Idaho  (facing  page  172). 

4.  Flotsam  Castle    (facing  page  296). 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

I 

Write  a  fictitious  narrative  telling  how  the  pirate  (facing 
page  348)  lost  his  leg. 

II 

Retell  a  story  that  you  imagine  the  village  censor  (facing 
page  382)  is  fond  of  telling.  Try  to  make  the  incident  related  and 
the  language  used  fit  the  character  that  his  picture  suggests. 


364  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III 

Write  a  fictitious  narrative  suggested  by  the  picture  facing 
page  476. 

244.  Summary.  Simple  narration  is  the  recounting  of  an 
event  or  of  a  series  of  events,  either  real  or  fictitious. 

The  three  essentials  of  simple  narration  are  setting,  charac- 
ters, and  action.  Life  and  movement  are  vital  elements  in  all 
narration. 

Unity  in  simple  narration  is  secured  by  carefully  selecting 
the  points  at  which  to  begin  and  end,  by  choosing  only  relevant 
incidents,  and  by  adopting  and  maintaining  a  definite  point 
of  view. 

Coherence  in  simple  narration  is  secured  by  relating  events 
in  the  order  of  their  occurrence. 

Emphasis  in  simple  narration  is  gained  by  means  of  an  ef- 
fective beginning  and  ending,  by  proper  proportion,  and  by 
climax. 

The  principles  governing  oral  and  written  narration  are  the 
same. 

The  three  sources  of  material  for  narration  are  first-hand 
experience,  reading,  and  imagination. 

Dialogue  renders  the  action  in  narration  more  vivid  and  the 
characters  more  lifelike. 

The  eight  principal  types  of  simple  narration,  exclusive  of 
history,  are  anecdotes,  tales,  news  stories,  letters,  diaries, 
biographies,  autobiographies,  and  travel  sketches. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

DESCRIPTION 

245.  Description  defined.  Description  is  that  form  of  com- 
position by  means  of  which  we  try  to  furnish  our  hearers  and 
readers  the  same  picture  and  the  same  impression  that  we  our- 
selves derived  from  the  place,  object,  or  person  described.  By  a 
skillful  selection  and  arrangement  of  details  of  sight,  sound, 
smell,  taste,  and  touch  we  attempt  to  create  for  them  an  appro- 
priate image,  induce  in  them  a  fitting  mood,  or  arouse  a  proper 
emotional  response.  Though  description,  both  oral  and  written, 
may  be  used  as  an  independent  form  of  discourse,  it  is  more  fre- 
quently subordinate  tonarration,  exposition,  or  argument.  Almost 
every  day  we  employ  description  to  picture  for  others  the  scene 
of  an  event  and  to  make  them  realize  what  our  sensations  were 
during  the  event.  Writers  of  stories  use  description  to  make  vivid 
the  scenes,  the  characters,  and  the  action  of  their  narratives. 

246.  Expository  description.  If  our  aim  in  giving  a  descrip- 
tion is  to  represent  with  photographic  accuracy  every  detail  in 
the  appearance  of  a  place,  an  object,  or  a  person,  so  that  our 
description  may  be  used  for  purposes  of  identification,  the 
result  is  an  expository  description.  Such  descriptions  are  found 
in  catalogues,  tourists'  guidebooks,  the  stage  setting  of  printed 
plays,  textbooks  on  science,  the  files  of  courts  and  detective 
agencies,  and  brief  classified  advertisements  in  newspapers. 
The  following  passages  are  expository  descriptions: 

1.  English  Colonial  house  :  ten  rooms,  tile  bath,  three  fireplaces,  hard- 
wood floors  throughout.  Chamberlain  metal  weather  strips,  built-in  book- 
cases in  large  living-room  ;  gas,  electricity  ;  beautifullawn  with  shade  trees, 
shrubs,  apple  and  quince  trees.  One  acre  in  grounds  ;  more  if  desired. 

365 


366  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  The  scene  represents  the  Manton  Hbrary.  The  room  is  furnished 
in  walnut  and  is  hung  with  rich  draperies.  At  the  center  of  the  back 
wall  is  an  open  fireplace,  in  which  a  fire  burns  cheerily.  To  the  left 
of  the  fireplace  is  a  door  opening  into  the  dining-room.  In  the  left  wall 
is  a  wide  door  hung  with  heavy  portieres.  In  the  right  wall  is  a  French 
window.  A  large  brown  velvet  rug  and  two  smaller  rugs  cover  the  floor. 
Bookcases  line  the  walls.  Several  easy  chairs,  a  library  table  covered 
with  magazines,  a  floor  reading-lamp,  a  smoker's  stand,  one  or  two 
pieces  of  statuary,  and  several  framed  etchings  complete  the  furnishings. 

247.  Artistic  description.  If  our  aim  in  giving  a  description 
is  to  furnish  others  pleasure  by  stimulating  their  imagination, 
appeahng  to  their  sense  of  beauty,  or  arousing  their  emotions, 
the  result  is  an  artistic  description.  Descriptions  of  this  kind 
are  found  in  all  forms  of  writing,  both  prose  and  poetry,  that 
possess  literary  merit.  To  produce  an  artistic  description  we 
must  decide  upon  the  single  dominant  impression  that  we  wish 
to  emphasize  and  then  select  and  arrange  with  skill  the  details 
that  will  most  effectively  convey  this  impression  to  others. 
Artistic  description,  like  all  other  fine  arts,  depends  upon  the 
careful  selection  and  right  use  of  materials.  It  is  not  meant 
to  be  photographically  accurate.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  supply 
details  that  will  stimulate  our  hearer's  or  reader's  imagination 
and  vividly  suggest  the  impression  and  the  emotions  that  we 
ourselves  experienced.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  limit  our  dis- 
cussion hereafter  chiefly  to  artistic  description. 

248.  Unity  in  description.  The  principle  of  unity  in  descrip- 
tion demands  first  of  all  that  we  limit  our  subject  definitely  and 
include  only  relevant  details.  Let  us  examine  the  following 
description  of  the  "house  of  the  seven  gables,"  to  see  how  Haw- 
thorne observed  this  first  requirement  of  unity: 

Maule's  lane,  or  Pyncheon  street,  as  it  were  now  more  decorous 
to  call  it,  was  thronged,  at  the  appointed  hour,  as  with  a  congrega- 
tion on  its  way  to  church.  All,  as  they  approached,  looked  upward 
at  the  imposing  edifice,  which  was  henceforth  to  assume  its  rank 


DESCRIPTION  367 

among  the  habitations  of  mankind.  There  it  rose,  a  little  with- 
drawn from  the  line  of  the  street,  but  in  pride,  not  modesty.  Its 
whole  visible  exterior  was  ornamented  with  quaint  figures,  con- 
ceived in  the  grotesqueness  of  a  Gothic  fancy,  and  drawn  or  stamped 
in  the  glittering  plaster,  composed  of  lime,  pebbles,  and  bits  of 
glass,  with  which  the  woodwork  of  the  walls  was  overspread.  On 
every  side  the  seven  gables  pointed  sharply  toward  the  sky,  and 
presented  the  aspect  of  a  whole  sisterhood  of  edifices,  breathing 
through  the  spiracles  of  one  great  chimney.  The  many  lattices, 
with  their  small,  diamond-shaped  panes,  admitted  the  sunlight  into 
hall  and  chamber,  while,  nevertheless,  the  second  story,  projecting 
far  over  the  base,  and  itself  retiring  beneath  the  third,  threw  a 
shadowy  and  thoughtful  gloom  into  the  lower  rooms.  Car\-ed 
globes  of  wood  were  affixed  under  the  jutting  stories.  Little  spiral 
rods  of  iron  beautified  each  of  the  seven  peaks.  On  the  triangular 
portion  of  the  gable,  that  fronted  next  the  street,  was  a  dial,  put  up 
that  very  morning,  and  on  which  the  sun  was  still  marking  the  pas- 
sage of  the  first  bright  hour  in  a  history  that  was  not  destined  to 
be  all  so  bright.  All  around  w^ere  scattered  shavings,  chips,  shingles, 
and  broken  halves  of  bricks ;  these,  together  with  the  lately  turned 
earth,  on  which  the  grass  had  not  begun  to  grow,  contributed  to  the 
impression  of  the  strangeness  and  novelty  proper  to  a  house  that 
had  yet  its  place  to  make  among  men's  daily  interests. — Haw- 
thorne, "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables" 

In  this  description  we  notice  that  the  subject  has  been  neatly 
limited  to  the  appearance  of  the  outside  of  the  house.  All  de- 
tails included  are  natural  parts  of  the  whole  and  are  relevant. 
No  details  have  been  brought  in  which  take  our  attention  away 
from  the  house. 

249.  Point  of  view.  A  definite  point  of  view,  carefully  chosen 
and  consistently  maintained,  is  an  important  requirement  of  a 
unified  description.  Our  success  in  description,  like  an  ar- 
tist's success  in  painting,  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  our 
choice  of  a  point  of  view.  Our  aim  should  be  to  choose  a  posi- 
tion that  will  enable  us  to  view  advantageously  the  scene  or 


368  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

object  that  we  are  to  describe.  Experiment  and  practice  will 
help  us  to  select  wisely.  Having  chosen  our  point  of  observa- 
tion, we  should  let  the  reader  know  clearly  where  we  are  with 
respect  to  the  scene  or  object.  Unless  completeness  and  natural- 
ness of  representation  demand  it,  we  should  not  change  our 
point  of  view.  In  case  a  change  is  made,  the  new  point  of  view 
should  be  mentioned  or  clearly  implied.  The  point  of  view  in 
the  selection  given  above  is  that  of  the  people  in  the  street, 
and  it  remains  fixed  throughout  the  description. 

In  addition  to  the  point  of  view  in  space,  the  point  of  view  in 
time  is  often  important.  That  is,  if  the  time  of  day  or  night,  the 
day  of  the  week  or  month,  or  the  season  of  the  year  affects  the 
scene  or  object  to  be  described,  the  time  should  be  mentioned. 

Furthermore,  our  personal  point  of  view,  which  may  depend 
upon  age,  previous  environment,  and  special  interests  in  life, 
may  influence  our  observation,  and  hence  our  description,  of  a 
scene  or  an  object. 

250.  Singleness  of  impression.  In  the  description  of  the 
"house  of  the  seven  gables"  we  notice  that  Hawthorne  dwelt  on 
the  unusual  appearance  of  the  house.  This  he  did,  not  only  by 
using  the  words  "the  imposing  edifice"  and  "the  impression 
of  the  strangeness  and  novelty,"  but  also  by  choosing  details 
which  kept  the  impression  in  our  minds  and  thus  emphasized 
it.  For  example,  he  introduced  such  expressions  as  "quaint 
figures,"  "the  grotesqueness  of  a  Gothic  fancy,"  "glittering 
plaster,"  "bits  of  glass,"  "seven  gables  pointed  sharply  toward 
the  sky,"  and  "threw  a  shadowy  and  thoughtful  gloom  into  the 
lower  rooms."  This  indicates  that  Hawthorne  first  decided  on 
some  single  impression  which  he  wished  to  make  on  the  reader 
and  then  chose  the  best  means  of  driving  that  impression  home. 

In  observing  a  scene,  an  object,  or  a  person  that  we  intend  to 
describe  we  should  discover  the  dominant  characteristic  or 
most  prominent  quality.  We  should  try  to  determine  the  effect 


DESCRIPTION  369 

or  impression  produced  on  us  by  this  dominant  characteristic. 
We  should  then  seek  to  produce  the  same  impression  on  our 
readers  by  means  of  our  description.  This  we  may  be  able  to 
do  if  we  are  careful  in  choosing];  details  that  emphasize  this  one 
principal  characteristic  and  if,  with  equal  care,  we  avoid  bring- 
ing in  any  details  that  detract  from  the  single  impression  we 
wish  to  make.  In  the  scene  described  below,  the  writer  was 
most  impressed  by  the  intense  heat,  and  this  is  the  single  im- 
pression that  his  description  makes  on  the  reader. 

It  was  high  noon,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun,  that  hung  poised  di- 
rectly overhead  in  an  intolerable  white  glory,  fell  straight  as  plum- 
mets upon  the  roofs  and  streets  of  Guadalajara.  The  adobe  walls 
and  sparse  brick  sidewalks  of  the  drowsing  town  radiated  the  heat 
in  an  oily,  quivering  shimmer.  The  leaves  of  the  eucalyptus  trees 
around  the  Plaza  drooped  motionless,  limp,  and  relaxed  under  the 
scorching,  searching  blaze.  The  shadows  of  these  trees  had  shrunk 
to  their  smallest  circumference,  contracting  close  about  the  trunks. 
The  shade  had  dwindled  to  the  breadth  of  a  mere  line.  The  sun 
was  everywhere.  The  heat  exhaling  from  brick  and  plaster  and 
metal  met  the  heat  that  steadily  descended,  blanketwise  and  smoth- 
ering, from  the  pale,  scorched  sky.  Only  the  lizards — they  lived  in 
chinks  of  the  crumbling  adobe  and  in  interstices  of  the  sidewalk — 
remained  without,  motionless,  as  if  stuffed,  their  eyes  closed  to 
mere  slits,  basking,  stupefied  with  heat.  At  long  intervals  the  pro- 
longed drone  of  an  insect  developed  out  of  the  silence,  vibrated  a 
moment  in  a  soothing,  somnolent,  long  note,  then  trailed  slowly  into 
the  quiet  again.  Somewhere  in  the  interior  of  one  of  the  "dobe 
houses  a  guitar  snored  and  hummed  sleepily.  On  the  roof  of  the 
hotel  a  group  of  pigeons  cooed  incessantly  with  subdued,  liquid 
murmurs,  very  plaintive ;  a  cat,  perfectly  white,  with  a  pink  nose 
and  thin,  pink  lips,  dozed  complacently  on  a  fence  rail,  full  in  the 
sun.  In  a  corner  of  the  Plaza  three  hens  wallowed  in  the  baking 
hot  dust,  their  wings  fluttering,  clucking  comfortably.— Fr.ank 
NoRRis,  "The  Octopus"^ 

^Used  by  permission  of  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  publishers. 


370  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

In  the  paragraph  above  indicate  the  concrete  details  and  the 
specific  words  used  to  convey  the  single  impression  of  intense  heat. 

251.  The  fundamental  image.  If  the  dominant  characteristic 
of  a  place,  an  object,  or  a  person  is  shape,  size,  or  color,  we  may 
often  convey  to  the  reader  a  quick  general  impression  by  the 
use  of  a  fundamental  image  or  by  comparing  the  subject  of  our 
description  to  a  more  familiar  object,  place,  or  person.  In  the 
following  passage  observe  how  effectively  the  italicized  expres- 
sion suggests  the  outstanding  characteristic  of  shape : 

The  Bay  of  Monterey  has  been  compared  by  no  less  a  person 
than  General  Sherman  to  a  bent  fishing-hook.  .  .  .  Santa  Cruz  sits 
exposed  at  the  shank;  the  mouth  of  the  Salinas  River  is  at  the 
middle  of  the  bend ;  and  Monterey  itself  is  cozily  ensconced  beside 
the  barb.  Thus  the  ancient  capital  of  California  faces  across  the 
bay,  while  the  Pacific  Ocean,  though  hidden  by  the  low  hills  and 
forest,  bombards  her  left  flank  and  rear  with  never-dying  surf.  In 
front  of  the  town,  the  long  line  of  seabeach  trends  north  and  north- 
west, and  then  westward  to  inclose  the  bay. — Stevenson,  "Across 
the  Plains"^ 

252.  Coherence  in  description.  All  effective  description  de- 
pends upon  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  details  selected. 
Such  an  arrangement  we  have  already  illustrated  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  "house  of  the  seven  gables."  First,  Hawthorne 
states  the  general  appearance  of  the  house:  it  is  an  "imposing 
edifice."  Next,  he  gives  the  general  aspect  of  the  exterior. 
Then,  as  he  views  the  house  more  closely,  he  fills  in  the  minute 
details  in  the  order  in  which  they  would  probably  attract  our 
attention:  the  figures  on  the  plaster,  the  gables,  the  lattices, 
the  projecting  stories,  the  carved  globes  of  wood,  the  spiral 
rods  of  iron,  the  sundial,  and  finally,  as  the  eye  surveys  the 

J^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 


H.  M.  Newman 


YOSEMITE  FALLS 


DESCRIPTION  371 

ground,  the  shavings  and  bricks.  At  the  end  he  gives  a  sweep- 
ing impression  of  all  the  details  in  the  words  "strangeness" 
and  "novelty."  This  kind  of  order— from  the  most  striking  to 
the  less  noticeable  details,  from  the  general  to  the  particular 
—is  very  common  in  description.  Other  natural  and  useful 
orders  of  arrangement  are  ( i )  from  far  to  near  or  near  to  far ; 
(2)  from  right  to  left  or  left  to  right ;  (3)  from  top  to  bottom, 
from  head  to  foot;  and  (4)  from  exterior  to  interior.  The 
point  that  we  should  remember  is  that  soinr  drfiuitc  order 
must  be  jollowcd. 

253.  Emphasis  in  description.  To  secure  emphasis  in  de- 
scription we  should  place  important  details  in  prominent  posi- 
tions. If  we  can  find  a  good  fundamental  image,  we  should 
place  it  first.  All  details  chosen  should  be  those  that  stand  out 
prominently  and  are  really  important.  It  is  neither  possible  nor 
desirable  to  include  every  detail.  We  should  devote  space  to 
the  parts  of  a  description  in  proportion  to  their  importance. 

254.  Vividness  in  description.  Vividness  is  the  essential 
quality  in  all  descriptive  writing.  Unless  a  description  fur- 
nishes the  reader  a  well-defined  picture  or  a  distinct  impression, 
it  is  lacking  in  effectiveness.  We  may  enhance  the  vividness  of 
our  descriptions  in  three  ways:  (i)  by  using  concrete  details; 

(2)  by  employing  both  specific  and  connotative  words;  and 

(3)  by  appealing  to  other  senses  in  addition  to  sight.  The  pas- 
sage that  follows  illustrates  these  three  ways : 

The  rain  flashed  across  the  midnight  window  with  a  myriad  feet. 
There  was  a  groan  in  outer  darkness,  the  voice  of  all  nameless  dreads. 
The  nervous  candle  flame  shuddered  by  my  bedside.  The  groaning 
rose  to  a  shriek,  and  the  little  flame  jumped  in  a  panic,  and  nearly 
left  its  white  column.  Out  of  the  corners  of  the  room  swarmed 
the  released  shadows.  Black  specters  danced  in  ecstasy  over  my 
bed.— H.  M.  Tomlinson,  "Bed-Books  and  Night-Lights" ^ 

^Used  by  permission  of  Wived  A.  Knopf,  Inc..  publisher. 


372  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I 

Study  the  descriptions  given  below  by  means  of  the  following 
directions:  (i)  Indicate  the  point  of  view  in  space  and  in  time. 
(2)  Explain  the  order  of  coherent  arrangement  of  details.  (3)  Tell 
what  the  dominant  impression  of  each  description  is.  (4)  If  the 
writer  used  a  fundamental  image,  point  it  out.  (5)  Find  examples 
of  specific  words,  concrete  details,  and  appeals  to  the  senses. 

1.  She  was  the  central  figure  of  a  still  landscape.  The  midday  sun- 
shine fell  in  broad  effulgence  upon  it ;  the  homely,  dun-colored  s-hadows 
had  been  running  away  all  the  morning,  as  if  shirking  the  contrast  with 
the  splendors  of  the  golden  light,  until  nothing  was  left  of  them  ex- 
cept a  dark  circle  beneath  the  widespreading  trees.  No  breath  of  wind 
stirred  the  leaves,  or  rippled  the  surface  of  the  little  pond.  The  lethargy 
of  the  hour  had  descended  even  upon  the  towering  pine  trees  growing 
on  the  precipitous  slope  of  the  mountain,  and  showing  their  topmost 
plumes  just  above  the  frowning,  gray  crag — their  melancholy  song  was 
hushed.  The  silent  masses  of  dazzling  white  clouds  were  poised  motion- 
less in  the  ambient  air,  high  above  the  valley  and  the  misty  expanse 
of  the  distant  wooded  ranges. — Charles  Egbert  Craddock,  "The 
Mystery  of  Witch-Face  Mountain"^ 

2.  The  room  in  which  I  found  myself  was  very  large  and  lofty. 
The  windows  were  long,  narrow,  and  pointed,  and  at  so  vast  a  distance 
from  the  black  oaken  floor  as  to  be  altogether  inaccessible  from  within. 
Feeble  gleams  of  encrimsoned  light  made  their  way  through  the  trelHsed 
panes  and  served  to  render  sufficiently  distinct  the  more  prominent 
objects  around ;  the  eye,  however,  struggled  in  vain  to  reach  the  re- 
moter angles  of  the  chamber  or  the  recesses  of  the  vaulted  and  fretted 
ceiling.  Dark  draperies  hung  upon  the  walls.  The  general  furniture  was 
profuse,  comfortless,  antique,  and  tattered.  Many  books  and  musical 
instruments  lay  scattered  about,  but  failed  to  give  any  vitality  to  the 
scene.  I  felt  that  I  breathed  an  atmosphere  of  sorrow.  An  air  of  stem, 
deep,  and  irredeemable  gloom  hung  over  and  pervaded  all. — Edgar 
Allan  Poe,  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher" 

1  Used  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


DESCRIPTION  373 

3.  There  was  no  dust  in  the  canon.  The  leaves  and  flowers  were  clean 
and  virginal.  The  grass  was  young  velvet.  Over  the  pool  three  cotton- 
woods  sent  their  snowy  fluffs  fluttering  down  the  quiet  air.  On  the  slope 
the  blossoms  of  the  wine-wooded  manzanita  fllled  the  air  with  springtime 
odors,  while  the  leaves,  wise  with  experience,  were  already  beginning 
their  vertical  twist  against  the  coming  aridity  of  summer.  In  the  open 
spaces  on  the  slope,  beyond  the  farthest  shadow  reach  of  the  manzanita, 
p)oised  the  mariposa  lilies,  like  so  many  flights  of  jeweled  moths  suddenly 
arrested  anil  on  the  verge  of  trembling  into  flight  again.  Here  and  there 
that  woods  harlequin,  the  madrono,  permitting  itself  to  be  caught  in  the 
act  of  changing  its  pea-green  trunk  to  madder  red,  breathed  its  fragrance 
into  the  air  from  great  clusters  of  waxen  bells.  Creamy  white  were  these 
bells,  shaped  like  lilies  of  the  valley,  with  the  sweetness  of  perfume 
that  is  of  the  springtime. — Jack  London,  '"All-Gold  Cafion"^ 

4.  A  wet  Sunday  in  a  country  inn  !  Whoever  has  had  the  luck  to 
experience  one  can  alone  judge  of  my  situation.  The  rain  pattered 
against  the  casements  ;  the  bells  tolled  for  church  with  a  melancholy 
sound.  I  went  to  the  windows  in  quest  of  something  to  amuse  the 
eye ;  but  it  seemed  as  if  I  had  been  placed  completely  out  of  the  reach 
of  all  amusement.  The  windows  of  my  bedroom  looked  out  among  tiled 
roofs  and  stacks  of  chimneys,  while  those  of  my  sitting-room  com- 
manded a  full  view  of  the  stable  yard.  I  know  of  nothing  more  cal- 
culated to  make  a  man  sick  of  this  world  than  a  stable  yard  on  a  rainy 
day.  The  place  was  littered  with  wet  straw  that  had  been  kicked  about 
by  travelers  and  stableboys.  In  one  corner  was  a  stagnant  pool  of  water, 
surrounding  an  island  of  muck ;  there  were  several  half-drowned  fowls 
crowded  together  under  a  cart,  among  which  was  a  miserable,  crest- 
fallen cock,  drenched  out  of  all  life  and  spirit ;  his  drooping  tail  matted, 
as  it  were,  into  a  single  feather,  along  which  the  water  trickled  from 
his  back ;  near  the  cart  was  a  half-dozing  cow,  chewing  her  cud,  and 
standing  patiently  to  be  rained  on,  with  wreaths  of  vapor  rising  from 
her  reeking  hide  ;  a  wall-eyed  horse,  tired  of  the  loneliness  of  the  stable, 
was  poking  his  spectral  head  out  of  a  window,  with  the  rain  dripping 
on  it  from  the  eaves ;  an  unhappy  cur,  chained  to  a  doghouse  hard  by, 
uttered  something  every  now  and  then  between  a  bark  and  a  yelp  ;  a 
drab  of  a  kitchen  wench  tramped  backwards  and  fonvards  through  the 
yard  in  pattens,  looking  as  sulky  as  the  weather  itself ;  everything,  in 

iFrom  "Moon-Face  and  Other  Stories."  Used  by  permission  of  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  publishers. 


374  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

short,  was  comfortless  and  forlorn,  excepting  a  crew  of  hardened  ducks, 
assembled  like  boon  companions  round  a  puddle  and  making  a  riotous 
noise  over  their  liquor.  —  Irving 

5.  There  was  a  heavy  odor  in  the  little  house  which  quite  blighted 
the  soft  spring  air  as  it  blew  in  through  the  half-open  window.  For 
supp>er  there  had  been  onions  and  sausage,  and  the  fried  potatoes  had 
burned.  The  smells  which  had  risen  from  the  kitchen  stove  had  min- 
gled with  the  raw,  soapy  fumes  which  gave  testimony  that  Monday  was 
washday  in  the  Black  family.  Now  the  smoking  of  the  kerosene  lamp 
on  the  center-table  seemed  to  seal  in  hermetical  fashion  the  oppressive 
room  against  the  gentle  breeze  of  the  May  evening. — Lucy  Huffaker, 
"The  Way  of  Life"i 

II 

From  your  reading  select  and  bring  to  class  three  brief,  vivid 
descriptions.  Be  prepared  to  analyze  them  according  to  the  di- 
rections given  in  Exercise  I,  page  372. 

Ill 

In  a  composition  of  not  more  than  two  hundred  words  write  a 
description,  in  terms  of  two  or  more  of  the  senses,  based  on  one  of 
the  following  topics : 

1.  Mother's  Kitchen  on  Baking  Day. 

2.  The  Dairy  at  Milking  Time. 

3.  Early  Morning  in  the  City. 

4.  The  Night  before  Christmas. 

5.  A  Railway  Lunch  Room  between  Trains. 

IV 
Write  a  description  of  not  more  than  three  hundred  words  in 
which  you  set  forth  vividly  the  dominant  impression  that  you  gain 
from  studying  one  of  the  following  pictures: 

1.  Camping  in  Colorado  (facing  page  116). 

2.  The  Sagebrush  of  Idaho  (facing  page  172). 

3.  Yosemite  Falls   (facing  page  370). 

4.  The  Lights  of  Industry  (facing  page  402). 

5.  Flotsam  Castle  (facing  page  296). 

^From  the  Atlantic  Monthly.   Used  by  permission  of  the  publishers. 


DESCRIPTION  375 

255.  How  to  describe  a  place.  Descriptions  of  places  include 
descriptions  of  landscapes  and  other  outdoor  scenes,  as  well  as 
those  of  buildings,  both  exterior  and  interior.  In  describing  a 
place  we  shall  find  the  following  directions  helpful : 

1.  Select  a  place  which  you  already  know  or  which  you  can 
easily  visit  before  you  write  the  description.  The  scene  should 
be  limited,  as  a  picture  is  limited,  to  a  definite  portion  of  space. 
The  place  should  be  one  that  has  genuine  interest  for  you  be- 
cause of  its  beauty,  its  novelty,  or  its  association. 

2.  Choose  an  advantageous  point  of  view,  and  early  in  your 
description  state  or  clearly  imply  what  this  point  of  view  is. 

3.  Observe  the  place  closely  and  try  to  discover  the  best 
natural  order  of  arranging  the  details  (see  section  252). 

4.  Select  essential  details.  Try  to  make  your  description  as 
clear  and  as  vivid  as  a  picture. 

5.  Concentrate  your  efforts  on  making  the  dominant  charac- 
teristic of  the  place  stand  out  as  the  dominant  impression  that 
you  wish  the  reader  to  get  from  your  description. 

6.  Use  specific  words  and  try  to  appeal  to  more  than  one 
sense.  Make  the  reader  experience  the  place— not  merely  see  it. 

The  following  brief  passages  illustrate  how  a  place  may  be 
described : 

A  FARMHOUSE 

The  rain  was  still  falling,  sweeping  down  from  the  half-seen 
hills,  wreathing  the  wooded  peaks  with  gray  garments  of  mist, 
and  filling  the  valley  with  a  whitish  cloud. 

It  fell  around  the  house  drearily.  It  ran  down  into  the  tubs 
placed  to  catch  it,  dripped  from  the  mossy  pump,  and  drummed  on 
the  upturned  milk  pails,  and  upon  the  brown-and-yellow  beehives 
under  the  maple  trees.  The  chickens  seemed  depressed,  but  the 
irrepressible  blue  jay  screamed  amid  it  all,  with  the  same  insolent 
spirit,  his  plumage  untarnished  by  the  wet.  The  barnyard  showed 
a  horrible  mixture  of   mud  and   mire,   through  which   Howard 


376  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

caught  glimpses  of  the  men  slumping  to  and  fro  without  more  addi- 
tional protection  than  a  ragged  coat  and  a  shapeless  felt  hat. 

In  the  sitting-room  where  his  mother  sat  sewing  there  was  not 
an  ornament,  save  the  etching  he  had  brought.  The  clock  stood 
on  a  small  shelf,  its  dial  so  much  defaced  that  one  could  not  tell 
the  time  of  day ;  and  when  it  struck,  it  was  with  noticeably  dis- 
proportionate deliberation,  as  if  it  wished  to  correct  any  mistake 
into  which  the  family  might  have  fallen  by  reason  of  its  illegible  dial. 

The  paper  on  the  walls  showed  the  first  concession  of  the 
Puritans  to  the  Spirit  of  Beauty,  and  was  made  up  of  a  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  flowers  of  unheard-of  shapes  and  colors,  ar- 
ranged in  four  different  ways  along  the  wall.  There  were  no 
books,  no  music,  and  only  a  few  newspapers  in  sight — a  bare, 
blank,  cold,  drab-colored  shelter  from  the  rain,  not  a  home. 
— Hamlin  Garland,  "Up  the  Coulee"^ 

THE  LISTS  AT  ASHBY 

The  scene  was  singularly  romantic.  On  the  verge  of  a  wood, 
which  approached  to  within  a  mile  of  the  town  of  Ashby,  was  an 
extensive  meadow,  of  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  green  turf, 
surrounded  on  one  side  by  the  forest,  and  fringed  on  the  other  by 
straggling  oak  trees,  some  of  which  had  grown  to  an  immense 
size.  The  ground,  as  if  fashioned  on  purpose  for  the  martial  dis- 
play which  was  intended,  sloped  gradually  down  on  all  sides  to  a 
level  bottom,  which  was  inclosed  for  the  lists  with  strong  pali- 
sades, forming  a  space  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length  and  about 
half  as  broad.  The  form  cf  the  inclosure  was  an  oblong  square, 
save  that  the  corners  were  considerably  rounded  off  in  order  to 
afford  more  convenience  to  the  spectators.  The  openings  for  the 
entry  of  the  combatants  were  at  the  northern  and  southern  ex- 
tremities of  the  lists,  accessible  by  strong  wooden  gates,  each  wide 
enough  to  admit  two  horsemen  riding  abreast.  At  each  of  these 
portals  were  stationed  two  heralds,  attended  by  six  trumpets,  as 
many  pursuivants,  and  a  strong  body  of  men-at-arms  for  main- 
taining order  and  ascertaining  the  quality  of  the  knights  who 
proposed  to  engage  in  this  martial  game. — Scott,  "Ivanhoe" 

1  Used  by  permission  of  Harper  and  Brothers,  publishers. 


DESCRIPTION  377 

EXERCISES 
I 

From  your  reading  select  and  bring  to  class  three  good  descrip- 
tions of  places. 

II 

Write  a  brief  description  of  one  of  the  following  pictures : 

1.  Camping  in  Colorado  (facing  page  ii6). 

2.  The  Sagebrush  of  Idaho  (facing  page  172). 

3.  Flotsam  Castle  (facing  page  296),  either  exterior  or  interior. 

4.  Man's  Conquest  over  Nature  (facing  page  198). 

5.  The  Lights  of  Industry  (facing  page  402). 

6.  Yosemite  Falls  (facing  page  370). 

Ill 
Give  an  oral  description  of  one  of  the  following  places: 

1.  A  street  corner  where  an  accident  has  recently  occurred. 

2.  An  attractive  spot  where  you  are  tr>'ing  to  persuade  the  class 
to  hold  its  spring  picnic. 

3.  Your  mother's  flower  garden. 

4.  A  public  park. 

5.  An  old  wharf. 

IV 

Describe  in  a  single  paragraph  one  of  the  following  places: 

1.  The  front  yard  of  your  home. 

2.  The  back  yard  of  your  home. 

3.  A  farmyard. 

4.  A  street  corner. 

5.  A  scene  of  your  own  choice. 


Describe  one  of  the  following  buildings,  both  exterior  and  in- 
terior. Keep  your  reader  informed  of  every  change  in  point  of 
view. 


378  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  Your  home. 

2.  Your  father's  garage  (barn). 

3.  The  school  building. 

4.  The  courthouse. 

5.  The  country  club  house. 

6.  A  building  of  your  own  choice. 


VI 

Write  a  description,  of  about  three  hundred  words,  of  one  of 
the  following  scenes: 

1.  An  Attractive  View  from  my  Window. 

2.  A  PubHc  Square. 

3.  A  Beautiful  Picnic  Spot. 

4.  The  School  Grounds. 

5.  Some  other  scene  of  local  interest. 

256.  How  to  describe  an  object.  In  describing  objects  which 
appeal  chiefly  to  the  sense  of  sight  we  should  avoid  making  a 
mere  list  or  catalogue  of  details.  We  should  avoid,  too,  using  a 
series  of  sentences  introduced  by  such  expressions  as  "I  can 
see"  and  "There  is."  We  should  try  to  gain  variety  of  expres- 
sion by  employing  various  sentence  forms.  The  following  direc- 
tions we  shall  find  helpful : 

1.  Select  an  object  that  is  interesting  and  that  you  know 
something  about. 

2.  Keep  one  point  of  view. 

3.  Note  the  most  striking  things  about  the  object,  such  as 
general  features,  shape,  size,  color,  and  the  dominant  charac- 
teristic. If  possible,  have  the  object  before  you  as  you  de- 
scribe it. 

4.  Select  essential  details,  which  distinguish  the  object  from 
others  in  its  general  class. 

5.  Arrange  the  details  according  to  the  best  natural  order. 

6.  Use  specific  words. 


I 


DESCRIPTIOX  379 

7.  When  you  have  finished  your  description,  compare  it  with 
the  object  itself,  to  see  whether  your  description  is  clear  and 
accurate. 

The  passages  given  below  illustrate  simple  descriptions  of 
objects : 

1.  In  the  center  stood  a  magnificent  column,  the  remains  of 
which  is  now  known  as  the  "burnt  pillar."  It  was  originally  com- 
posed of  ten  pieces  of  porphyry,  bound  together  by  bands  of  cop- 
per. Each  block  of  porphyry  was  ten  feet  high  and  eleven  feet 
in  diameter,  and  the  column  thus  composed  was  mounted  on  a 
pedestal  of  white  marble  twenty  feet  high.  On  the  top  of  this 
column  was  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Apollo.  The  god,  crowned 
with  glittering  rays,  held  a  globe  in  one  hand  and  a  scepter  in  the 
other. — Clara  Erskine  Clement,  "Constantinople" 

2.  The  Faun  is  the  marble  image  of  a  young  man,  leaning  his 
right  arm  on  the  trunk  or  stump  of  a  tree ;  one  hand  hangs  care- 
lessly by  his  side ;  in  the  other  he  holds  the  fragment  of  a  pipe,  or 
some  such  sylvan  instrument  of  music.  His  only  garment — a 
lion's  skin,  with  the  claws  upon  his  shoulder — falls  halfway  down 
his  back,  leaving  the  limbs  and  the  entire  front  of  the  figure  nude. 
The  form,  thus  displayed,  is  marvelously  graceful,  but  has  a  fuller 
and  more  rounded  outline,  more  flesh,  and  less  of  heroic  muscle, 
than  the  old  sculptors  were  wont  to  assign  to  their  types  of  mas- 
culine beauty.  The  character  of  the  face  corresponds  with  the 
figure;  it  is  most  agreeable  in  outline  and  feature,  but  rounded 
and  somewhat  voluptuously  developed,  especially  about  the  throat 
and  chin ;  the  nose  is  almost  straight,  but  very  slightly  curves  in- 
ward, thereby  acquiring  an  indescribable  charm  of  geniality  and 
humor.  The  mouth,  with  its  full  yet  delicate  lips,  seems  so  nearly 
to  smile  outright  that  it  calls  forth  a  responsive  smile.  The  whole 
statue — unlike  anything  else  that  ever  was  wrought  in  that  severe 
material  of  marble — conveys  the  idea  of  an  amiable  and  sensual 
creature,  easy,  mirthful,  apt  for  jollity,  yet  not  incapable  of  being 
touched  by  pathos.  It  is  impossible  to  gaze  long  at  this  stone 
image  without  conceiving  a  kindly  sentiment  towards  it,  as  if  its 
substance  were  warm  to  the  touch  and  imbued  with  actual  life. 


38o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

It  comes  very  close  to  some  of  our  pleasantest  sympathies. — Haw- 
thorne, "The  Marble  Faun" 

Note  the  superiority  of  the  second  passage  over  the  first  in  its 
suggestiveness  and  in  its  power  to  stimulate  the  imagination. 

EXERCISES 

I 

Select  from  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  two  good  descrip- 
tions of  objects.  Analyze  them  according  to  the  directions  given  in 
Exercise  I,  page  372. 

II 

Describe  orally  one  of  the  following  objects: 


1.  A  gate. 

6.  A  kitchen  utensil. 

2.  A  beehive. 

7.  A  sewing-cabinet. 

3.  A  bookcase. 

8.  A  ticket  booth. 

4.  A  monument. 

9.  A  window  seat. 

5.  An  armchair. 

10.  An  unusual  signboard. 

Ill 

Write  a  description, 

of  about  two  hundred  words,  of  one  of  t 

following  objects : 

1.  A  flower  bed. 

6.  A  farm  implement. 

2.  A  motor  boat. 

7.  A  bird  house. 

3.  A  windmill. 

8.  An  old-fashioned  desk. 

4.  A  street  car. 

9.  A  street-vender's  stand. 

5.  The  postman's  cart.                        10.  An  object  of  your  choice 

257.  How  to  describe  an  animal.  In  describing  animals,  as 
in  describing  objects,  we  should  select  the  most  striking  details 
of  form,  color,  and  size.  In  addition,  we  may  include  such 
details  as  manner  of  movement,  facial  expression,  disposition, 
and  any  other  details  that  individualize  the  animal.  The  fol- 
lowing selections  show  how  animals  may  be  described : 

I .  The  Tailless  Tyke  had  now  grown  into  an  immense  dog,  heavy 
of  muscle  and  huge  of  bone:  a  great  bull  head;  undershot  jaw, 


DESCRIPTION  381 

square  and  lengthy  and  terrible;  vicious,  yellow,  gleaming  eyes; 
cropped  ears ;  and  an  expression  incomparably  savage.  His  coat 
was  a  tawny  lionlike  yellow,  short,  harsh,  dense ;  and  his  back, 
running  up  from  the  shoulder  to  the  loins,  ended  abruptly  in  a 
knoblike  tail.  He  looked  like  the  devil  of  a  dog's  hell,  and  his 
reputation  was  as  bad  as  his  looks.  He  never  attacked  unprovoked  ; 
but  a  challenge  was  never  ignored,  and  he  was  greedy  of  insults. — 
Ollivant,  "Bob,  Son  of  Battle"^ 

2.  El  Rayo  shone  like  burnished  copper,  his  silver  mane  and 
tail  glittering  as  if  powdered  with  diamond  dust.  He  was  long 
and  graceful  of  body,  thin  of  flank,  slender  of  leg.  With  arched 
neck  and  flashing  eyes,  he  walked  with  the  pride  of  one  who 
was  aware  of  the  admiration  he  excited. 

Vitriolo  was  black  and  powerful.  His  long  neck  fitted  into 
well-placed  shoulders.  He  had  great  depth  of  girth,  immense 
length  from  shoulder  points  to  hips,  big  cannon  bones,  and  elastic 
pasterns.  There  was  neither  amiability  nor  pride  in  his  mien ; 
rather  a  sullen  sense  of  brute  power,  such  as  may  have  belonged 
to  the  knights  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Now  and  again  he  curled  his 
lips  away  from  the  bit  and  laid  his  ears  back  as  if  he  intended  to 
eat  of  the  elegant  Beau  Brummel  stepping  so  daintily  beside  him. 
Of  the  antagonistic  crowd  he  took  not  the  slightest  notice. — 
Gertrude  Atherton,  "The  Splendid  Idle  Forties "^ 

EXERCISES 
I 

Give  an  oral  description  of  some  pet  or  domestic  animal. 

II 

Write  brief  descriptions  of  two  of  the  following  animals: 

1.  A  horse.  4.  A  cow.  7.  A  guinea  pig. 

2.  A  dog.  5.  A  pig.  8.  A  prairie  dog. 

3.  A  cat.  6.  A  peacock.  9.   .\  beaver. 

^Used  by  permission  of  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  publishers. 
2Used  by  permission  of  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company,  publishers. 


382  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

258.  How  to  describe  a  person.  To  be  successful  in  describ- 
ing a  person  we  must  possess  or  develop  the  power  of  keen 
observation.  In  our  efforts  to  write  personal  descriptions  we 
shall  find  the  following  directions  valuable : 

1.  Select  a  person  sufficiently  striking  in  appearance  to  be 
interesting  and  easily  differentiated  from  other  persons, 

2.  Pick  out  the  prominent  characteristics  of  form,  features, 
facial  expression,  posture,  dress,  and  manner.  Do  not,  however, 
exaggerate  peculiarities  unless  you  intend  to  give  a  caricature. 

3.  Arrange  the  parts  of  your  description  logically  and  effec- 
tively. Often  you  may  begin  by  giving  a  general  impression 
of  the  person.  You  may  then  introduce  prominent  details  in  the 
order  in  which  they  impress  you  as  you  look  at  the  person. 
Sometimes  it  may  seem  advisable  to  describe  the  person  in 
detail  first  and  then  sum  up  your  general  impression  at  the  end 
of  your  description. 

4.  Reference  to  a  person's  environment,  his  habits  of  life, 
and  his  manner  of  moving  and  speaking  will  often  add  vividness 
and  completeness  to  a  personal  description. 

The  following  passages  contain  brief  descriptions  of  persons : 

I.  On  a  high  chair  beside  the  chimney,  and  directly  facing 
Denis  as  he  entered,  sat  a  little  old  gentleman  in  a  fur  tippet.  He 
sat  with  his  legs  crossed  and  his  hands  folded,  and  a  cup  of 
spiced  wine  stood  by  his  elbow  on  a  bracket  on  the  wall.  His 
countenance  had  a  strongly  masculine  cast ;  not  properly  human, 
but  such  as  we  see  in  the  bull,  the  goat,  or  the  domestic  boar; 
something  equivocal  and  wheedling,  something  greedy,  brutal, 
and  dangerous.  The  upper  lip  was  inordinately  full,  as  though 
swollen  by  a  blow  or  a  toothache ;  and  the  smile,  the  peaked 
eyebrows,  and  the  small,  strong  eyes  were  quaintly  and  almost 
comically  evil  in  expression.  Beautiful  white  hair  hung  straight 
all  round  his  head,  like  a  saint's,  and  fell  in  a  single  curl  upon  the 
tippet.  His  beard  and  mustache  were  the  pink  of  venerable 
sweetness.    Age,  probably  in  consequence  of  inordinate  precau- 


r:,««; 


onBBi^ouniia^aiBa^MitftfiMi^A  rr*"* -  Trrr - •- 


^ 


THE  VILLAGE  CENSOR 
From  an  etching  by  Sears  Gallagher 


DESCRIPTION  383 

tions,  had  left  no  mark  upon  his  hands;  and  the  Maletroit  hand 
was  famous.  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  anything  at  once 
so  fleshly  and  so  delicate  in  design  ;  the  taper,  sensual  fingers  were 
like  those  of  one  of  Leonardo's  women  ;  the  fork  of  the  thumb 
made  a  dimpled  protuberance  when  closed ;  the  nails  were  per- 
fectly shaped,  and  of  a  dead,  surprising  whiteness.  It  rendered 
his  aspect  tenfold  more  redoubtable,  that  a  man  with  hands  like 
these  should  keep  them  devoutly  folded  like  a  virgin  martyr — 
that  a  man  with  so  intent  and  startling  an  expression  of  the  face 
should  sit  patiently  on  his  seat  and  contemplate  people  with  an 
unwinking  stare,  like  a  god,  or  a  god's  statue.  His  quiescence 
seemed  ironical  and  treacherous,  it  fitted  so  poorly  with  his  looks, 
— Stevenson,  "The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door"^ 

2.  Today  he  looked  ten  years  younger.  His  kinky  gray  hair, 
generally  knotted  into  little  wads,  was  now  divided  by  a  well- 
defined  path  starting  from  the  great  wrinkle  in  his  forehead  and 
ending  in  a  dense  tangle  of  underbrush  that  no  comb  dared  pene- 
trate. His  face  glistened  all  over.  His  mouth  was  wide  open, 
showing  a  great  cavity  in  which  each  tooth  seemed  to  dance  with 
delight.  His  jacket  was  as  white  and  stiff  as  soap  and  starch  could 
make  it,  while  a  cast-off  cravat  of  the  Colonel's — double-starched 
to  suit  Chad's  own  ideas  of  propriety — was  tied  in  a  single  knot,  the 
two  ends  reaching  to  the  very  edge  of  each  ear.  To  crown  all,  a  red 
carnation  flamed  away  on  the  lapel  of  his  jacket,  just  above  an  out- 
side pocket,  which  held  in  check  a  pair  of  white  cotton  gloves 
bulging  with  importance  and  eager  for  use.  Every  time  he  bowed 
he  touched  with  a  sweep  both  sides  of  the  narrow  hall. — F.  Hop- 
KiNSON  Smith,  "Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville"- 

3.  Ysabel  glanced  with  some  envy  at  the  magnificent  jewels 
with  which  the  Governor  of  the  Californians  was  hung,  but  did 
not  covet  the  owner.  An  uglier  man  than  Pio  Pico  rarely  had 
entered  this  world.  The  upper  lip  of  his  enormous  mouth  dipped 
at  the  middle ;  the  broad,  thick  underlip  hung  down  with  its  own 
weight.  The  nose  was  big  and  coarse,  although  there  was  a  cer- 
tain  spirited   suggestion   in   the   cavernous   nostrils.    Intelligence 

^Used  by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers. 

2  Used  by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  publishers. 


384  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  reflectiveness  were  also  in  his  little  eyes,  and  they  were  far 
apart.  A  small  white  mustache  grew  above  his  mouth ;  about  his  chin, 
from  ear  to  ear,  was  a  short  stubby  beard,  whiter  by  contrast  with 
his  copper-colored  skin.  He  looked  much  like  an  intellectual  bear. 
And  Ysabel  ?  In  truth,  she  had  reason  for  her  pride.  Her  black 
hair,  unblemished  by  gloss  or  tinge  of  blue,  fell  waving  to  her  feet. 
California,  haughty,  passionate,  restless,  pleasure-loving,  looked 
from  her  dark  green  eyes ;  the  soft  black  lashes  dropped  quickly 
when  they  became  too  expressive.  Her  full  mouth  was  deeply  red, 
but  only  a  faint  pink  lay  in  her  white  cheeks ;  the  nose  curved  at 
bridge  and  nostrils.  About  her  low  shoulders  she  held  a  blue  rebozo, 
the  finger  tips  of  each  slim  hand  resting  on  the  opposite  elbow.  She 
held  her  head  a  little  back,  and  Pio  Pico  laughed  as  he  looked  at  her. 
— Gertrude  Atherton,  "The  Splendid  Idle  Forties"^ 

EXERCISES 


From  your  reading  select  and  bring  to  class  three  good  descrip- 
tions of  persons.  Be  prepared  to  explain  how  the  author  has 
described  each  person. 

II 

In  a  single  sentence  give  a  description  of  each  of  the  following 
persons  in  terms  of  his  chief  characteristic : 

1.  A  traffic  policeman.  4.  Your  family  physician. 

2.  Your  postman.  5.  A  newsboy. 

3.  A  dressmaker.  6.  A  local  character. 

Ill 

Describe  in  a  single  paragraph  a  person  in  one  of  the  following 
pictures : 

1.  Robinson  Crusoe  Opens  his  Chest  (facing  page  26). 

2.  A  Fight  in  the  Rigging  (facing  page  54). 

3.  The  Pirate  (facing  page  348). 

4.  The  Village  Censor  (facing  page  382). 

5.  The  End  of  the  Trail  (facing  page  476). 

HJsed  by  permission  of  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company,  publishers. 


DESCRIPTION  385 

IV 

Describe  orally  one  of  the  following  persons: 

1.  A  person  whom  you  have  recently  met. 

2.  A  friend  whom  your  brother  has  never  seen  but  whom  he  is  to 
meet  for  you  at  the  station. 

3.  The  athletic  coach. 

4.  A  relative. 

5.  A  local  character. 

V 

Write  a  description,  of  about  two  hundred  words,  of  one  of  the 
following  persons : 

1.  Your  grandfather  (or  grandmother). 

2.  Your  small  brother  (or  sister). 

3.  The  milkman  (or  iceman). 

4.  A  clerk  at  a  cold-drink  stand. 

6.  A  person  included  in  Exercise  II,  above. 

259,  Description  by  effect.  In  some  cases  a  useful  method  of 
describing  a  place,  an  object,  or  a  person  is  to  tell  the  effect 
produced  upon  the  observer.  In  such  description  we  are  seeing 
through  the  describer's  eyes  and  often  observing  through  his 
other  senses.  We  instinctively  put  ourselves  in  his  place.  This 
method  is  particularly  valuable  in  describing  impressions,  as 
the  following  selection  shows : 

During  the  whole  of  a  dull,  dark,  and  soundless  day  in  the 
autumn  of  the  year,  when  the  clouds  hung  oppressively  low  in  the 
heavens,  I  had  been  passing  alone,  on  horseback,  through  a  sin- 
gularly dreary  tract  of  country ;  and  at  length  found  myself,  as 
the  shades  of  the  evening  drew  on,  within  view  of  the  melancholy 
House  of  Usher.  I  know  not  how  it  was — but,  with  the  first 
glimpse  of  the  building,  a  sense  of  insufferable  gloom  pervaded  my 
spirit.  I  say  insufferable;  for  the  feeling  was  unrelieved  by  any 
of  that  half-pleasurable,  because  poetic,  sentiment  with  which 
the  mind  usually  receives  even  the  sternest  natural  images  of  the 


386  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

desolate  or  terrible.  I  looked  upon  the  scene  before  me — upon 
the  mere  house,  and  the  simple  landscape  features  of  the  domain, 
upon  the  bleak  walls,  upon  the  vacant  eyelike  windows,  upon  a 
few  rank  sedges,  and  upon  a  few  white  trunks  of  decayed  trees — 
with  an  utter  depression  of  soul  which  I  can  compare  to  no  earthly 
sensation  more  properly  than  to  the  after-dream  of  the  reveler 
upon  opium:  the  bitter  lapse  into  everyday  life,  the  hideous 
dropping-off  of  the  veil.  There  was  an  iciness,  a  sinking,  a  sicken- 
ing of  the  heart,  an  unredeemed  dreariness  of  thought  which  no 
goading  of  the  imagination  could  torture  into  aught  of  the  sublime. 
What  was  it — I  paused  to  think — what  was  it  that  so  unnerved 
me  in  the  contemplation  of  the  House  of  Usher? — Poe,  ''The  Fall 
of  the  House  of  Usher" 

EXERCISE 

Find  in  your  reading  and  bring  to  class  a  passage  in  which  an 
author  has  made  use  of  description  by  effect.  Point  out  the  con- 
crete details  and  the  specific  words  used. 

260.  Principal  aids  in  writing  descriptions.  The  fundamental 
principles  of  description  that  have  been  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding sections  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

1.  Unify  by  singleness  of  impression. 

2.  Clarify  by  point  of  view. 

3.  Individualize  by  concrete  details. 

4.  Vivify  by  range  of  sense  appeal  and  by  the  use  of  specific 
and  connotative  words. 

5.  Combine  details,  for  coherence,  according  to  the  most 
effective  natural  order. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 
I 

Guided  by  the  five  aids  mentioned  in  section  260,  write  a  vivid 
description  of  one  of  the  pictures  in  this  book  that  you  have  not 
previously  described. 


DESCRIPTION  387 

II 

Study  one  of  the  following  pictures  carefully  and  then  write  a 
description  in  which  you  set  forth  the  dominant  characteristic  of 
the  scene : 

1.  A  May-Day  Frolic  (facing  page  360). 

2.  A  City  Market  (facing  page  146). 

3.  The  Skyscrapers  (facing  page  324). 

.  4.  Man's  Conquest  over  Nature  (facing  page  198). 

Ill 

Write  a  vivid  description  of  a  scene  or  a  building  of  your  own 
selection.  Make  the  dominant  characteristic  so  clear  that  the 
reader  will  get  the  single  impression  that  you  aim  to  give  him. 

261.  Summary.  Description  is  that  form  of  composition  by 
means  of  which  we  try  to  furnish  others  the  same  picture  and 
the  same  impression  that  we  ourselves  derived  from  the  place, 
object,  or  person  described.  Descriptions  may  be  either  exposi- 
tory or  artistic,  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  writer. 

Unity  in  description  requires  the  proper  limitation  of  the 
subject,  the  choice  of  relevant  details,  a  consistent  point  of  view, 
and  singleness  of  impression.  A  fundamental  image  is  often 
helpful  in  giving  the  single  impression  of  shape,  size,  or  color. 

Coherence  in  description  requires  that  the  parts  and  the  de- 
tails be  arranged  in  the  most  effective  natural  order. 

Emphasis  in  description  demands  that  only  essential  details 
be  chosen,  that  these  be  placed  in  emphatic  positions,  and  that 
the  parts  of  the  description  be  given  space  in  proportion  to  their 
importance. 

Vividness,  the  essential  quality  in  all  description,  is  obtained 
by  using  concrete  details,  by  employing  both  specific  and  con- 
notative  words,  and  by  variety  in  sense  appeal. 

Description  by  effect  is  sometimes  a  useful  method  of  mak- 
ing an  impression  vivid  and  of  creating  the  desired  atmosphere. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

EXPOSITION 

262.  Exposition  defined.  Whenever  we  define  a  word,  tell 
our  companions  how  to  play  a  game,  recommend  a  book  to  a 
friend,  discuss  the  character  of  our  favorite  heroine  in  fiction, 
or  explain  a  law  of  science,  we  employ  exposition.  We  may  de- 
fine exposition,  then,  as  that  form  of  composition  by  means  of 
which  we  give  explanations  of  facts,  ideas,  methods,  and  prin- 
ciples. The  purpose  of  exposition  is  to  make  our  meaning  clear 
to  the  understanding  of  our  hearers  and  readers.  It  appeals 
chiefly  to  the  mind,  rarely  to  the  feelings.  Next  to  narration, 
exposition  is  the  most  common  form  of  discourse.  The  practice 
of  exposition  develops  observation,  judgment,  orderly  thinking, 
and  accurate  expression.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we 
learn  to  explain  to  others  exactly  what  we  mean. 

263.  The  importance  of  clearness.  Our  first  object  in  all  ex- 
position should  be  to  make  our  meaning  entirely  clear  to  others. 
But  clearness,  we  must  understand,  is  a  relative  quality.  It 
depends  primarily  on  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  on  the 
amount  of  information  possessed  by  the  persons  to  whom  we 
are  explaining  the  subject.  If  we  should  attempt  to  explain 
baseball  to  a  Chinese  boy  who  had  never  seen  the  game  played, 
we  should  find  our  task  far  more  difficult  than  it  would  be  to 
make  the  process  clear  to  our  younger  brother  who  has  already 
some  knowledge  of  the  game.  In  the  case  of  the  Chinese  boy  we 
should  be  obliged  to  explain  not  only  the  purpose  of  the  game 
but  also  the  use  of  the  ball  and  bat,  the  meaning  of  infield  and 
outfield,  the  duties  of  each  player,  and  the  method  of  scoring. 
At  every  moment  we  should  need  to  interpret  the  baseball 

388 


EXPOSITION  389 

language,  the  technical  terms  of  the  sport.  The  point  of  view 
and  the  information  of  the  Chinese  boy  wfjiild  differ  from  those 
of  our  younger  brother. 

In  giving  an  exposition  we  should  therefore  put  ourselves  in 
the  place  of  our  hearers  and  readers  and  should  try  to  realize 
their  point  of  view  and  the  amount  of  information  that  they 
possess  about  our  subject.  In  this  way  we  can  properly  adapt 
our  explanation  to  their  particular  demands  and  thus  make 
our  exposition  clear.  The  nature  of  our  subject,  then,  and  the 
needs  of  those  for  whom  our  explanation  is  intended  must 
determine  the  minuteness  and  thoroughness  of  our  exposition. 

In  order  that  our  explanation  may  be  clear  and  effective,  it 
should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis.  Every  exposition  should  be  thought- 
fully planned.  Having  chosen  a  sufficiently  limited  subject,  we 
should  select  our  material  according  to  its  demands  and  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  our  hearers  and  readers.  We  should  then 
make  a  complete  outline,  which  must  be  tested  and  revised  until 
it  represents  our  best  effort  at  logical  arrangement.  Only  by 
such  thorough  preparation  as  this  can  we  hope  to  make  our 
exposition  clear  and  effective. 

EXERCISE 

Make  a  systematic  review  of  Chapter  IV.  Come  to  class  pre- 
pared to  discuss  (i)  the  choice  and  limitation  of  subjects,  (2)  the 
making  of  an  outline,  and  (3)  the  laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and 
emphasis  as  they  apply  to  exposition. 

264.  Oral  exposition.  In  oral  exposition  we  have  two  advan- 
tages that  we  do  not  have  when  we  write:  first,  we  can  talk 
directly  to  our  audience  and  can  judge  from  its  attitude  whether 
our  point  of  view  is  the  proper  one;  secondly,  we  are  often 
able  to  use.  for  illustration,  objects  and  diagrams  which  in 
writing  we  cannot  so  easily  employ.  Though  it  is  true  that  a 


390  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

diagram  may  accompany  a  piece  of  written  exposition,  it  is 
seldom  so  clear  as  the  diagram  which  we  construct  and  explain 
while  we  talk.  Since  oral  exposition  has  these  natural  advan- 
tages, we  should  not  fail  to  make  the  most  of  them.  We  should 
take  great  care  to  adapt  our  point  of  view  to  our  audience  and 
to  avail  ourselves  of  illustrative  material.  (For  suggestions  as 
to  the  method  of  giving  oral  compositions  see  section  ii.) 

265.  Methods  of  exposition.  The  methods  used  in  develop- 
ing the  subject  of  an  extensive  exposition  and  those  employed 
in  developing  the  topic  of  a  paragraph  are  often  the  same.  Fre- 
quently we  shall  employ  two  or  more  of  these  methods  in  the 
course  of  our  exposition.  In  addition,  we  sometimes  make  use 
of  portions  of  description  and  narration  as  a  means  of  increas- 
ing the  vividness  and  interest  of  our  explanation. 

EXERCISE 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  tell  which  of  the  paragraphs  included 
in  sections  92-97  and  in  Exercise  I  following  these  sections  are 
expositions,  and  be  able  to  explain  which  methods  were  used  in  each. 

266.  Kinds  of  exposition.  Though  the  purpose  of  all  exposi- 
tion is  the  same,  there  are  several  recognized  types  with  which 
we  should  become  familiar.  The  most  common  of  these  are 
(i)  definitions,  (2)  explanations  of  processes,  (3)  discussions 
of  facts  and  ideas,  (4)  essays,  (5)  expository  biography,  (6)  re- 
views and  criticisms,  (7)  editorials,  and  (8)  expository  letters. 
These  eight  types  we  may  consider  in  order. 

267.  Definitions.  The  explanation  of  what  a  word  means  is 
exposition  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms.  To  define  a  word  is  to 
restrict,  or  set  a  limit  to,  its  meaning.  A  definition  should  be  as 
accurate  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it  and  as  concise  in  statement 
as  clearness  will  permit.  Let  us  consider  the  following  defini- 
tions of  a  square : 


EXPOSITION  391 

1.  A  square  is  a  geometrical  figure  \  having  four  equal  sides,  the  oppo- 
site sides  being  parallel  and  the  four  angles  being  right  angles. 

2.  A  square  is  a  parallelogram  \  having  four  equal  sides  and  four 
right  angles. 

3.  A  square  is  a  rectangle  \  having  equal  sides. 

AH  these  definitions  are  accurate,  Init  the  third  is  to  be 
preferred  because  of  its  conciseness. 

The  making  of  a  definition  involves  a  twofold  process.  The 
first  step  is  the  identification  of  the  unfamiliar  object  or  idea 
by  stating  that  it  is  a  member  of  a  larger  class  of  objects  or 
ideas  with  which  we  are  familiar.  This  larger  class  we  call  the 
genus ;  the  smaller  class,  represented  by  the  object  or  the  idea 
to  be  defined,  we  call  the  species.  Thus,  the  genus  in  the  first 
definition  given  above  is  geometrical  figure :  in  the  second, 
parallelogram ;  and  in  the  third,  rectangle.  The  species  in  all 
three  is  square.  By  stating  that  the  unfamiliar  object  square  is 
included  in  any  one  of  these  larger  classes  of  familiar  objects, 
we  give  the  word  preliminary  identification  and  partially  re- 
strict its  meaning.  This  we  have  done  in  the  portion  of  each 
definition  that  precedes  the  vertical  line. 

The  second  step  in  the  process  of  definition  is  the  accurate 
di§erentiation  of  the  particular  species  to  be  defined  from  other 
species  included  in  the  genus.  The  portion  of  each  definition 
following  the  vertical  line  sets  forth  the  particulars,  or  details. 
that  distinguish  a  square  from  other  kinds  of  geometrical 
figures,  parallelograms,  or  rectangles. 

In  order  to  make  our  definitions  as  concise  as  possible,  we 
should  carefully  choose  the  smallest  genus  that  we  can  find. 
By  so  doing  we  diminish  the  number  of  particulars  required 
and  frequently  make  our  statement  more  accurate.  The  large 
genus  geometrical  figure  calls  for  three  distinct  particulars; 
parallelogram  demands  two;  whereas  rectangle,  the  smallest 
genus,  requires  only  one. 


392  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

In  formulating  a  definition  we  should  observe  two  cautions. 
First,  we  should  avoid  using  a  cognate  form  of  the  word  to  be 
defined. 

Incorrect:  Narration  is  something  that  is  narrated. 

Correct:  Narration  is  the  recounting  of  an  event  or  a  series  of  events. 

The  words  used  in  defining  another  word  should  be  more  famil- 
iar than  the  word  to  be  defined. 

Secondly,  we  should  not  attempt  to  define  a  word  by  the  use 
of  a  wAew-clause  or  a  w/jere-clause. 

Incorrect:    A  lie  is  when  a  person  tells  a  falsehood. 
Correct:    A  lie  is  a  falsehood. 

A  noun  should  be  defined  by  means  of  a  noun,  a  verb  by  means 
of  a  verb,  and  so  on. 

We  shall  often  find  it  impossible  to  give  an  adequate  exposi- 
tion of  the  meaning  of  a  word  in  a  single  concise  statement.  In 
such  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  more  elaborate  exposi- 
tion by  means  of  one  or  more  of  the  other  methods.  Frequently 
we  shall  find  the  method  of  comparison  and  contrast  useful  in 
expanding  our  definition.  In  other  instances  we  may  make  our 
meaning  more  clear  by  repetition,  by  details,  by  examples  and 
illustrations.  The  passage  that  follows  illustrates  the  more 
elaborate  form  of  definition : 

Although  the  term  slang  is  sometimes  used  with  more  or  less 
intentional  inexactness,  and  has  often  been  carelessly  defined, 
the  notion  to  which  it  corresponds  in  general  use  seems  to  be 
tolerably  precise.  There  are  two  principal  characteristics  which, 
taken  in  conjunction,  may  serve  to  distinguish  what  is  properly 
called  slang  from  certain  other  varieties  of  diction  that  in  some 
respects  resemble  it.  The  first  of  these  is  that  slang  is  a  conscious 
offense  against  some  conventional  standard  of  propriety.  A  mere 
vulgarism  is  not  slang,  except  when  it  is  purposely  adopted,  and 
acquires  an  artificial  currency,  among  some  class  of  persons  to 


EXPOSITION  393 

whom  it  is  not  native.  The  other  distinctive  feature  of  slang  is 
that  it  is  neither  a  part  of  the  ordinary  language  nor  an  attempt 
to  supply  its  deficiencies.  The  slang  word  is  a  deliberate  sub- 
stitute for  a  word  of  the  vernacular,  just  as  the  characters  of  a 
cipher  are  substitutes  for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  as  a  nick- 
name is  a  substitute  for  a  personal  name.  The  latter  comparison 
is  the  more  exact  of  the  two ;  indeed,  nicknames,  as  a  general 
rule,  may  be  accurately  described  as  a  kind  of  slang.  A  slang 
expression,  like  a  nickname,  may  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealing the  meaning  from  uninitiated  hearers,  or  it  may  be  em- 
ployed sportively  or  out  of  aversion  to  dignity  or  formality  of 
speech.  The  essential  point  is  that  it  does  not,  like  the  words  of 
ordinary  language,  originate  in  the  desire  to  be  understood.  The 
slang  word  is  not  invented  or  used  because  it  is  in  any  respect  bet- 
ter than  the  accepted  term,  but  because  it  is  different.  No  doubt 
it  may  accidentally  happen  that  a  word  which  originates  as  slang 
is  superior  in  expressiveness  to  its  regular  synonym  (much  as  a 
nickname  may  identify  a  person  better  than  his  own  name  does), 
or  that  in  time  it  develops  a  shade  of  meaning  which  the  ordinary 
language  cannot  convey.  But  when  such  a  word  comes  to  be  used 
mainly  on  account  of  its  intrinsic  merit,  and  not  because  it  is  a 
wrong  word,  it  is  already  ceasing  to  be  slang.  So  long  as  the 
usage  of  good  society  continues  to  proscribe  it,  it  may  be  called 
a  vulgarism;  but  unless  the  need  which  it  serves  is  supplied  in 
some  other  way,  it  is  likely  to  find  its  way  into  the  standard 
speech. — Bradley,  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 

EXERCISES 


Without  the  aid  of  a  dictionary  formulate  the  most  accurate 
definitions  that  you  can  of  the  following  words.  Come  to  class 
prepared  to  give  your  definitions  orally  as  sentences  or  to  write 
them  on  the  blackboard  in  the  form  illustrated  below : 

Species  Genus  Differentia 

pen  an  instrument  used  in  writing  with  ink 

to  speak  to  utter  sounds  for  the  purpose  of  communication 


394 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


angle 

circle 

hexagon 

opaque 

triangle 

awl 

dairy 

ice 

printer 

umbrella 

bicycle 

diary 

knife 

rhombus 

walk 

bird 

drum 

money 

sister 

weed 

bolt 

fish 

newspaper 

tent 

window 

II 

Point  out  the  methods  of  exposition  used  by  Bradley  in  the  pas- 
sage printed  above. 

Ill 

Define  in  a  paragraph  one  of  the  following  pairs  of  words,  using 
any  of  the  methods  of  exposition  that  will  enhance  the  clearness 
and  accuracy  of  your  definition : 


1.  plant,  animal. 

2.  artist,  artisan. 

3.  scholar,  student. 

4.  education,  culture. 

5.  opera,  oratorio. 


6.  open  shop,  closed  shop. 

7.  monument,  statue. 

8.  work,  play. 

9.  patience,  stupidity. 
10.  bravery,  ignorance. 


IV 

In  others  of  your  textbooks  find  and  bring  to  class  three  good 
definitions.  Be  prepared  to  analyze  them  according  to  the  form 
given  in  Exercise  I. 

268.  Explanations  of  processes.  The  most  common  type  of 
exposition  is  that  employed  in  explaining  how  to  do  something. 
We  are  constantly  telling  people  how  to  play  a  game,  perform 
a  task,  or  make  some  article.  The  various  steps  in  any  process 
should  be  explained  in  the  order  in  which  they  naturally  come; 
that  is,  in  the  order  of  time.  In  longer  expositions  of  processes 
the  chronological  order  may  be  supplemented  by  some  other 
logical  order.  Each  of  the  following  passages  is  an  explanation 
of  how  to  play  a  game: 


EXPOSITION  395 

SCOUT'S  NOSE 

Prepare  a  number  of  paper  bags,  all  alike,  and  put  in  each  a 
different-smelling  article,  such  as  chopped  onion  in  one,  tan  in 
another,  and,  in  others,  rose  leaves,  leather,  aniseed,  violet  powder, 
orange  peel,  etc.  Put  these  packets  in  a  row  a  couple  of  feet  apart, 
and  let  each  competitor  walk  down  the  line  and  have  five  seconds' 
sniff  at  each.  At  the  end  he  has  one  minute  in  which  to  write  down 
or  to  state  to  the  umpire  the  names  of  the  different  objects  smelled, 
from  memory,  in  their  correct  order. — Ernest  ThOxMPson  Seton, 
"Boy  Scouts  of  America:  Official  Handbook"^ 

HAT-BALL 

The  players  (about  a  dozen)  put  their  hats  in  a  row  near  a  house, 
fence,  or  log  (hollows  up).  A  dead  line  is  drawn  ten  feet  from  the 
hats;  all  must  stand  outside  of  that.  The  one  who  is  "it"  begins 
by  throwing  a  soft  ball  into  one  of  the  hats.  If  he  misses  the  hat, 
a  chip  is  put  into  his  own,  and  he  tries  over.  As  soon  as  he  drops 
the  ball  into  a  hat,  the  owner  runs  to  get  the  ball ;  all  the  rest  run 
away.  The  owner  must  not  follow  beyond  the  dead  line,  but  must 
throw  the  ball  at  someone.  If  he  hits  him,  a  chip  goes  into  that 
person's  hat ;  if  not,  a  chip  goes  into  his  own. 

As  soon  as  someone  has  five  chips,  he  wins  the  booby  prize; 
that  is,  he  must  hold  his  hand  out  steady  against  the  wall,  and 
each  player  has  five  shots  at  it  with  the  ball,  as  he  stands  on  the 
dead  line. — Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  "Boy  Scouts  of  America: 
Official  Handbook"^ 

EXERCISES 
I 

Find  in  Chapters  II  and  V  of  this  book  selections  that  are  ex- 
planations of  processes.  Is  the  student's  composition  "How  we 
earned  our  Car"  exposition  or  narration?  Explain  your  answer. 
How  does  exposition  dift'er  from  narration  ? 

^Used  by  permission  of  the  author  and  the  publishers. 


396  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Explain  orally  one  of  the  following  processes,  using  objects  or 
sketches  as  illustrations  whenever  they  will  render  your  explana- 
tion more  effective.  Plan  your  exposition  carefully  by  means  of 
an  outline,  which  you  will  place  on  the  blackboard  before  you 
give  your  talk. 

1.  How  to  Make  and  Set  a  Trap. 

2.  How  to  Remove  Stains. 

3.  How  to  Weave  a  Basket. 

4.  How  to  Install  a  Wireless  Telephone. 

5.  How  to  Change  an  Automobile  Tire. 

6.  How  to  Detect  Impure  Milk  (or  Water). 

7.  How  to  Clean  Old  Lace. 

8.  How  to  Combat — (some  insect  enemy), 

9.  How  to  Make  a  Bird  House. 

10.  How  to  Revive  a  Partially  Drowned  Person. 

11.  How  to  Build  a  Fire  without  Matches. 

12.  How  to  Perform  a  Card  Trick. 

13.  How  to  Catch  and  Mount  Butterflies. 

14.  How  to  Make  a  Butterfly  Tray. 

15.  A  process  of  your  own  choice. 

Ill 

Write  from  a  carefully  prepared  outline  (which  you  will  hand 
in  with  your  composition)  an  exposition  of  one  of  the  following 
processes : 

1.  How  to  Train  a  Dog. 

2.  How  to  Fill  a  Silo. 

3.  How  to  Plan  and  Serve  a  Meal. 

4.  How  to  Get  Advertisements  for  a  School  Paper. 

5.  How  to  Memorize  Poetry. 

6.  How  to  Organize  and  Conduct  a  Canning  Club. 

7.  How  to  Make  Molasses  (or  Maple  Syrup). 

8.  How  to  Exterminate  Weeds. 

9.  How  to  Reclaim  Exhausted  Soil. 

10.  How  to  Plan  and  Conduct  a  Community  Social. 


EXPOSITION  397 

11.  How  to  Learn  the  Touch  System  of  Typewrit  inc. 

12.  How  to  Perform  an  Experiment  in  Domestic  Science. 

13.  How  to  Make  a  Beaded  Bag. 

14.  How  a  Newspaper  is  Printed. 

15.  A  process  of  your  own  choice. 

IV 

Explain  orally  or  in  writing  a  process  suggested  by  one  of  the 
following  pictures : 

1.  The  Dawn  of  a  New  Life  (frontispiece). 

2.  The  Skyscrapers  (facing  page  324). 

3.  The  Lights  of  Industry  (facing  page  402). 

4.  Putting  the  Shot  (facing  page  94). 

5.  Off!  (facing  page  220). 

6.  A  Marble  Tournament  (facing  page  72). 

269.  Discussions  of  facts  and  ideas.  A  third  kind  of  exposi- 
tion consists  of  explanations  of  facts  and  discussions  of  ideas, 
theories,  and  opinions.  Whenever  we  explain  or  discuss  a  topic 
of  scientific,  economic,  political,  religious,  or  literary  interest, 
we  employ  this  type  of  exposition.  The  range  of  subjects  and 
the  variety  of  treatment  are  much  greater  in  this  type  than  in 
definitions  and  in  explanations  of  processes.  Frequently  de- 
scription and  narration  are  employed  as  a  means  of  making  the 
exposition  more  vivid  and  entertaining.  The  following  selec- 
tion is  a  discussion  of  facts  and  ideas : 

THE  NEW  POSITION  OF  WOMEN 

The  new  position  of  women  is  not  a  matter  of  suffrage  or  of 
''rights."  It  is  not  a  matter  of  argument.  It  is  a  fact.  Women 
are  now  entering  new  fields  of  economic  and  political  life.  They 
are  earning  their  living  in  ways  once  thought  improper ;  they  are 
sharing  in  the  responsibilities  of  the  community  in  ways  once 
thought  impossible.  Argument  as  to  the  right  and  wrong  of  the 
new  position  of  women  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  it  is  here,  and 


398  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

that  it  has  become  a  matter  to  reckon  with  in  any  attempt  to  under- 
stand the  complex  organization  of  modern  hfe. 

The  new  generation  cannot  know  wholly  the  barriers  of  custom 
and  tradition,  which  women  had  to  break  down  before  they  at- 
tained their  new  position.  They  cannot  fully  realize  how  an  ap- 
parently resistless  movement  was  preceded  by  a  long  period  of 
advocacy  of  bitterly  fought  principles.  They  cannot  fully  visual- 
ize the  organization  of  the  old  society,  where  the  position  of 
women  was  so  different  from  what  it  is  now. 

And  yet  they  are  faced  with  a  hundred  new  problems,  which 
are  the  legacy  from  those  old  conditions.  It  is  true  that  these  prob- 
lems face  mature  men  and  women  with  more  insistence  than  they  do 
young  people.  Still,  young  people  can  prepare  for  the  experiences 
which  are  to  come  later.  They  can  try  to  re-create  in  their  minds 
a  picture  of  the  old  society  and  the  share  that  women  had  in  it. 
They  can  form  that  picture  from  their  reading  and  from  talks 
with  their  parents.  They  can  try  to  understand  the  revolt  from  the 
old  conditions.  They  can  come  to  know  the  vigorous  personalities 
who  led  that  revolt.  They  can  try  to  understand  the  principles  and 
programs  of  the  new  movement  as  it  developed :  how  people  fought 
over  questions  of  woman  suffrage,  and  hardly  noticed  the  silent 
change  that  was  taking  place  in  economic  life.  They  can  find  out 
what  work  women  are  doing  today,  what  influence  they  have,  what 
movements  they  are  engaged  in,  what  they  intend  to  do,  to  what 
degree  they  consciously  plan  group  action.  And  with  some  of  this 
information  in  hand,  they  can  attempt  to  weigh  good  and  bad,  to 
try  to  find  out  to  what  extent  the  new  is  desirable  and  better  than 
the  old.  What  have  women  lost  by  the  change  ?  What  have  they 
gained  ?    What  things  are  good  ?    What  are  bad  ? 

Most  important  of  all,  students  will  have  to  decide  their  own 
attitude  toward  this  part  of  life.  Every  girl  will  have  to  take  a 
share  in  new  responsibilities,  powers,  and  opportunities ;  every 
young  man  will  have  to  understand  that  in  the  coming  years 
women  will  not  quietly  follow  men,  but  will  insist  upon  as  free 
and  genuine  a  partnership  with  men  as  they  can  command. — 
Ralph  Philip  Boas,  "Youth  and  the  New  World "^ 

1  Used  by  permission  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  Press,  publishers. 


EXPOSITION  399 


EXERCISES 

I 

What  methods  of  exposition  are  used  in  the  preceding  discus- 
sion?   (See  sections  91-97.) 

II 

From  your  reading  select  and  bring  to  class  a  discussion  of 
some  scientific,  economic,  political,  or  literary  topic.  Make  an  out- 
line showing  the  paragraph  topics,  and  be  prepared  to  explain  the 
methods  of  exposition  that  the  author  uses  in  developing  his  ideas. 

Ill 

Discuss  orally  one  of  the  following  topics.  Plan  your  talk 
carefully  by  means  of  an  outline,  which  you  will  place  on  the 
blackboard  before  you  give  your  exposition.  Illustrate  your  dis- 
cussion by  concrete  instances  and  by  anecdotes  if  they  will  make 
your  talk  more  effective. 

1.  My  Idea  of  School  Spirit. 

2.  The  Importance  of  the  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm. 

3.  The  Greatest  Problem  in  Cotton  Growing. 

4.  Reasons  for  the  Localization  of  Industrial  Plants. 

5.  My  Idea  of  a  True  Sportsman. 

6.  What  Society  E.xpects  of  Educated  Men  and  Women. 

7.  Conservation  in  the  Packing  Industry. 

8.  Qualities  Most  Necessary  for  Success  in  Life. 

9.  Why  People  Leave  the  Country  to  Live  in  the  City. 

10.  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Free  Textbooks. 

11.  What  we  Owe  the  Advertisers  in  our  School  Paper. 

12.  Some  Advantages  of  Co-education. 

IV 

From  a  carefully  prepared  outline  (which  you  will  hand  in  with 
your  composition)  write  an  exposition  of  three  hundred  words  on 
one  of  the  following  topics : 


400  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  The  Importance  of  Bacteria. 

2.  The  Abuse  of  Athletics. 

3.  Advantages  of  Membership  in  the  Interscholastic  League. 

4.  The  Value  of  Physical  Training. 

5.  The  Economic  Balance  between  Animals  and  Plants. 

6.  The  Meaning  of  Agricultural  Conservation. 

7.  The  Importance  of  Concrete. 

8.  Why  Scott's  Characters  are  Interesting. 

9.  Why  I  Like  (or  Do  Not  Like)  Modern  Poetry. 

10.  The  Value  of  Community  Socials. 

11.  The  Importance  of  Fire  in  Civilization. 

12.  What  Should  an  Education  Include  ? 

V 

From  a  carefully  prepared  outline  discuss  orally  or  in  writing 
a  topic  suggested  by  one  of  the  following  pictures : 

1.  Man's  Conquest  over  Nature  (facing  page  198). 

2.  The  Lights  of  Industry  (facing  page  402). 

3.  A  City  Market  (facing  page  146). 

4.  The  Dawn  of  a  New  Life  (frontispiece). 

5.  The  Sagebrush  of  Idaho  (facing  page  172). 

VI 

In  an  exposition  of  about  two  hundred  words  interpret  one  of 
the  following  pictures: 

1.  Thrift  and  Prosperity  (facing  page  424). 

2.  The  Dawn  of  a  New  Life  (frontispiece). 

3.  The  Skyscrapers  (facing  page  324). 

4.  The  End  of  the  Trail  (facing  page  476). 

270.  Essays.  An  essay  is  an  exposition  of  an  author's 
thoughts  or  reflections  on  some  subject  of  human  interest.  It 
differs  from  the  usual  discussion  of  facts  and  ideas  in  that  it  is 
more  deliberately  composed  and  gives  evidence  of  greater  origi- 
nality in  respect  both  to  the  author's  thought  and  to  his  manner 
of  expression.    It  frequently  contains  narrative  and  descriptive 


EXPOSITION  401 

passages  used  as  illustrations  of  the  ideas  that  the  writer  is  set- 
ting forth.  Essays  are  of  two  kinds:  the  formal  essay  and  the 
informal  essay. 

Formal  essay.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  formal  essay  to  give 
information  and  instruction.  It  is  rather  brief  in  scope,  is  usu- 
ally impersonal  in  tone,  and  is  addressed  primarily  to  the  intel- 
lect. It  may  deal  with  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  such  as 
literature,  art,  history,  biography,  science,  ethics,  economics, 
or  philosophy.  It  must  give  evidence  of  greater  care  in  struc- 
ture, method  of  development,  and  manner  of  expression  than 
does  the  informal  essay.  Among  the  most  noted  formal  essayists 
in  English  and  American  literature  are  Macaulay,  Carlyle, 
Huxley,  and  Emerson. 

Injormal  essay.  The  informal  essay,  as  the  name  suggests, 
is  more  free  in  its  method  than  the  formal  essay.  It  does  not 
attempt  to  discuss  a  subject  exhaustively,  nor  does  it  deal  with 
subjects  that  call  for  elaborate  explanation.  It  is  personal  in 
tone  and  point  of  view  and  is  written  in  familiar  style,  such  as 
we  use  in  easy,  polite  conversation  and  in  well-written  friendly 
letters.  It  reveals  the  writer's  personality,  his  whims  and  fan- 
cies, sympathies  and  antipathies,  grave  moods  and  gay. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  informal  essay  is  to  entertain, 
though  the  thoughtful  reader  may  often  derive  instruction  as 
well.  From  the  delightful  familiar  essays  of  Addison  and 
Steele  we  gain  information  as  to  the  manners  and  customs  of 
English  life  in  the  early  eighteenth  century.  Charles  Lamb,  in 
such  essays  as  ''A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig,"  "Poor  Rela- 
tions," ''Old  China,"  "Dream  Children,"  and  "A  Bachelor's 
Complaint  of  the  Behavior  of  Married  People,"  wrote  purely 
for  his  own  enjoyment  and  our  entertainment.  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson  wrote  for  much  the  same  purpose  in  such  essays  as 
"Talk  and  Talkers,"  "An  Apology  for  Idlers,"  and  "The  Char- 
acter of  Dogs."  In  such  essays  as  "El  Dorado,"  "Aes  Triplex," 


402  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  ^'Pulvis  et  Umbra"  Stevenson  may  have  had  a  slightly 
more  serious  purpose.  The  reading  of  a  few  informal  essays 
from  such  English  writers  as  Addison,  Steele,  Lamb,  Hazlitt, 
Stevenson,  John  Galsworthy,  and  E.  V.  Lucas,  and  from  such 
American  authors  as  Irving,  Holmes,  John  Burroughs,  Samuel 
McChord  Crothers,  and  Robert  Haven  Schauffler,  will  add  to 
our  understanding  of  this  type  of  expository  writing. 

The  range  of  subjects  on  which  informal  essays  may  be 
written  is  as  wide  as  the  interests  of  mankind.  The  essayist 
may  entertain  us  with  familiar  discussions  of  his  personal  ex- 
periences, his  observation  of  other  people,  comments  on  life 
and  the  peculiarities  of  human  nature,  interesting  discoveries 
he  has  made  in  his  study  of  plants  and  animals,  or  any  other 
subjects  that  appeal  to  him  strongly  and  that  he  has  the  ability 
to  present  interestingly.  It  is  the  personality  of  the  essayist 
and  his  treatment  of  a  subject,  more  than  the  subject  itself, 
that  makes  the  informal  essay  enjoyable. 

The  following  selection  is  a  simple,  informal  essay: 

ON  GETTING  UP  IN  THE  MORNING 

It  is  said  that  one  can  become  accustomed  to  anything,  even 
hanging,  if  the  act  is  repeated  often  enough.  As  I  grow  older  I 
believe  this  assertion  less  and  less.  I  have  been  getting  up  every 
morning  for  a  little  more  than  nineteen  years,  and  I  am  not  used 
to  it  yet.  It  was  quite  as  hard  for  me  to  arise  this  morning  as 
it  was  a  year  ago,  or,  for  that  matter,  ten  years  ago.  I  have  little 
hope  that  time  will  make  this  daily  task  easier  for  me,  and  I  have 
even  imagined  that  I  shall  want  to  lie  in  my  coffin  for  just  a  few 
minutes  on  that  glorious  morning  after  Gabriel  blows  his  horn. 

I  have  often  wondered  why  it  is  so  hard  for  me  to  get  up  in  the 
morning.  Why  should  I  wish  to  lie  in  bed  until  the  last  minute? 
I  am  no  bed-loving  sluggard.  A  bed  in  itself  holds  no  attractions 
for  me.  After  I  once  get  up,  I  am  not  anxious  to  lie  down  again. 
I  once  asked  a  good  friend  of  mine  to  solve  this  problem  for  me, 


THE  LIGHTS  OF  INDUSTRY 
Courtesy  of  The  Nation's  Business 


EXPOSITION  403 

and  he  said  that  the  seat  of  the  trouble  was  in  the  manner  in 
which  I  was  awakened.  He  advised  me  to  buy  a  ^ood  alarm  clock, 
and  said  that  if  I  were  awakened  suddenly  and  regularly  every 
day,  the  habit  of  wishing  to  stay  in  bed  late  could  be  easily  over- 
come. I  bought  the  clock  and  used  it,  but  without  success.  If  I 
put  it  close  to  my  bed  at  night,  I  would  reach  out  the  next  morn- 
ing and  cut  the  alarm  off  when  it  rang,  and  then  go  peacefully 
back  to  sleep.  On  the  other  hand,  if  I  put  it  out  of  reach,  I  would 
lie  still  in  bed  and  wait  patiently  for  the  spring  to  run  down,  and 
then  turn  quietly  over  and  begin  another  snooze. 

After  the  alarm-clock  episode,  I  tried  the  oldest  way  known 
in  the  world ;  that  is,  having  some  hardy  soul  who  gets  up  early  to 
wake  me.  For  nearly  a  month  various  friends  of  mine  volunteered 
to  do  this  service  for  me,  but  not  one  of  them  ever  succeeded  in 
getting  me  up  on  the  instant.  Even  their  threats  and  their  blows 
failed  to  rouse  me.  I  would  open  my  eyes,  smile  sweetly,  and  go 
back  to  sleep  again. 

One  of  my  father's  friends  heard  of  my  malady  in  some  way  and 
delivered  me  a  long  lecture  on  the  subject.  He  appealed  to  my 
ambition,  but  my  ambition  refused  to  be  stirred.  In  vain  did  he 
call  to  my  mind  the  early-rising  habits  of  Washington,  Franklin, 
and  Jefferson.  I  looked  innocent  and  asked  him  if  it  were  not  a 
fact  that  Burr  and  Arnold  also  were  early  risers.  I  ventured  to  ask 
him  if  it  were  not  likewise  true  that  at  least  a  million  and  a  half 
other  men  who  had  lived  during  the  Colonial  period  and  got  up 
early  every  morning  had  in  the  end  died  unknown.  After  this  I 
was  even  emboldened  to  inquire  if  Doctor  Johnson  did  not  make 
it  a  habit  to  stay  in  bed  till  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Before 
he  could  reply,  however,  I  had  left  the  room. 

The  next  time  I  saw  him  he  told  me  a  story  about  an  early  bird's 
catching  a  worm.  I  was  not  as  much  impressed  with  his  narrative 
as  I  should  have  been.  I  felt  too  sorry  for  the  unfortunate  worm. 
If  that  worm  had  stayed  in  bed  a  little  longer,  he  would  not  have 
been  caught  by  the  bird.  But,  after  all,  it  was  wasted  sympathy, 
because  the  worm  had  no  one  to  blame  but  himself. 

It  makes  no  difference  what  the  season  of  the  year  is,  I  always 
rise  late.    In  the  winter  the  bed  is  warm,  and  the  room  is  cold. 


404  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Why  should  I  suddenly  change  from  the  warm  and  comfortable  to 
the  cold  and  uncomfortable?  Dante  would  have  us  believe  that 
lost  souls  are  effectively  punished  by  such  sudden  changes  in  tem- 
perature as  these.  Is  it  meet  that  a  man  should  suffer  punishment 
before  dying  ? 

In  the  summer  how  cool  and  comfortable  it  is  in  my  bed  with 
just  a  suggestion  of  a  breeze  blowing  across  my  face,  while  on  the 
world  outside  the  fierce  sun  is  shining !  When  finally  I  get  up  on 
summer  mornings,  how  different  I  must  appear  from  the  early 
risers,  who  impress  me  as  hot  and  tired  and  dusty ! 

I  am  afraid  I  shall  never  relinquish  my  habit  of  late  rising.  For, 
after  all,  is  there  any  advantage  in  getting  up  early?  A  chicken 
obeys  the  adage  of  ^' early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise"  all  his  life,  and 
finally  his  head  is  cut  off  and  he  is  made  into  a  pie ;  while  the  owl, 
reputed  to  be  the  wisest  of  birds,  stays  up  all  night,  sleeps  all  day, 
lives  to  a  ripe  old  age,  and  is  never  eaten. 

Again,  are  they  that  rise  early  any  happier  than  I  ?  Do  they 
enjoy  life  more  ?    If  they  do,  their  happiness  must  be  supreme, 

EXERCISES 
I 

As  a  means  of  becoming  better  acquainted  with  the  informal 
essay,  read  three  or  more  essays  in  the  "Contributors'  Club"  of  the 
Atlantic  Monthly  or  in  the  "Point  of  View  "  of  Scribner's  Magazine. 

II 
Write  an  informal  essay  on  one  of  the  following  subjects.    Put 
as  much  originality  into  the  thought  and  as  much  naturalness  and 
ease  into  the  expression  of  your  thought  as  possible. 

1.  On  Waiting  for  the  Postman. 

2.  Garden  Friends. 

3.  Human  Parasites. 

4.  The  Monotony  of  Being  Good. 

5.  The  Pleasures  of  Loafing. 

6.  On  Being  Small  (or  Large). 

7.  On  Being  the  Youngest  (or  Oldest)  Child, 

8.  People  who  Give  Advice. 


EXPOSITION  405 

9.  What  "Central"  Must  Think  of  our  Family. 

10.  On  Answering  Advertisements. 

11.  Curiosity  in  Animals. 

12.  Winter  Joys. 

13.  Company  Manners. 

14.  Personality  in  the  Handshake. 

15.  A  subject  of  your  own  choice. 

271.  Expository  biography.  Biography,  since  it  contains  an 
account  of  the  chief  events  in  a  person's  life,  is  properly  classi- 
fied as  narration.  The  character  sketch,  in  which  is  briefly  set 
forth  an  interpretation  and  estimate  of  the  life  of  a  person,  is 
primarily  expository.  Personal  description  and  narrative  pas- 
sages used  for  illustration  are  often  found,  however,  in  an 
exposition  of  character.  The  subject  of  a  character  sketch  may 
be  a  real  person  whom  we  know  or  a  character  in  literature. 

The  following  biographical  sketch  is  a  brief  estimate  of  a 
character  in  literature : 

In  Portia,  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  aimed  at  a  perfect  scheme 
of  an  amiable,  intelligent,  and  accomplished  woman.  The  result 
is  a  fine  specimen  of  beautiful  nature  enhanced  by  beautiful  art. 
Eminently  practical  in  her  tastes  and  turn  of  mind,  full  of  native, 
home-bred  sense  and  virtue,  Portia  unites  therewith  something  of 
the  ripeness  and  dignity  of  a  sage,  a  mellow  eloquence,  and  a  large, 
noble  discourse ;  the  whole  being  tempered  with  the  best  grace  and 
sensibility  of  womanhood.  As  intelligent  as  the  strongest,  she  is  at 
the  same  time  as  feminine  as  the  weakest  of  her  sex:  she  talks  like  a 
poet  and  a  philosopher,  and  she  talks,  for  all  the  world,  just  like  a 
woman !  She  is  as  full  of  pleasantry,  too,  and  as  merry  "within  the 
limit  of  becoming  mirth,"  as  she  is  womanly  and  wise;  and  her 
arch  sportiveness  always  has  a  special  flavor  as  the  free  outcome 
of  perfect  moral  health.  Nothing  indeed  can  be  more  fitting  and 
well  placed  than  her  demeanor,  now  bracing  her  speech  with  grave 
maxims  of  practical  wisdom,  now  unbending  her  mind  in  sallies  of 
wit,  or  of  innocent,  roguish  banter. — The  New  Hudson  Shake- 
speare, "The  Merchant  of  Venice,"'  p.  x.\x. 


4o6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  following  biographical  sketch  is  an  informal  exposition 
of  character  in  which  narration  serves  to  make  the  person  of 
the  sketch  vivid  and  natural : 

AN  UNUSUAL  VISITOR 

I  know  an  old  lady  who  spends  most  of  her  time  in  visiting  her 
friends  and  relatives.  '' Grandma"  never  comes  to  stay,  but  is 
always  "just  passing  through." 

Upon  her  arrival  she  unpacks  her  suitcase,  makes  herself  at 
home,  and  begins  to  gossip  about  her  friends  and  relatives,  es- 
pecially those  whom  she  has  last  visited.  People  whom  she  likes 
are  beautiful  or  handsome,  clever,  rich,  and  brilliant.  Her  daugh- 
ter's new  clothes  are  lovely  and  attractive.  John,  her  son,  is  plainly 
an  object  of  pity  as  she  tells  of  his  family  troubles :  his  wife  hires 
a  cook ;  plays  cards ;  pays  thirty  dollars  for  a  hat ;  drives  her  own 
car;  and,  most  shocking  of  all,  dances  until  three  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  Here  "Grandma"  folds  her  hands  and  shakes  her  head 
as  if  to  say,  "Before  John  married  I  told  him  what  kind  of  girl 
Carrie  was,  but  he  would  not  listen  to  one  word  I  said." 

While  eating  she  tells  how  well  she  used  to  cook.  She  serves  her- 
self the  choicest  food  with  the  excuse  that  her  teeth  are  not  good. 
She  never  cares  for  the  way  a  dish  is  prepared ;  nevertheless,  she  eats 
three  hearty  meals  every  day.  In  the  summer  she  complains  of 
thirst  until  the  hostess  is  compelled  to  offer  her  an  iced  beverage. 

If  she  wishes  to  buy  something,  her  purse  is  never  at  hand; 
accordingly,  she  asks  someone  to  pay  until  it  is  convenient  for  her 
to  get  her  bag. 

Her  night  habits  are  most  peculiar.  She  often  sleeps  several 
hours  during  the  day  and  is  unable  to  sleep  at  night.  She  gets 
out  of  bed,  turns  on  the  fire,  if  the  weather  is  cool,  and  writes  let- 
ters which  often  cover  twenty  pages.  In  these  letters  she  tells  her 
imaginary  troubles  and  ailments.  After  writing  her  letter  she  goes 
back  to  bed  and  sleeps  until  after  breakfast  the  next  morning.  In 
the  summer,  she  gets  up  at  the  break  of  day  to  "rest  a  while," 
before  the  other  members  of  the  household  awaken.  She  usually 
seats  herself  in  a  rocker  on  the  gallery  and  begins  a  slow,  regular 


EXPOSITION  407 

rocking  back  and  forth.  The  sound  thus  produced,  together  with 
her  footfall  on  the  bare  floor,  is  enough  to  make  the  late  morning 
nap  of  even  the  hardiest  sleeper  anything  but  sweet. 

Her  attitude  is  that  of  a  martyr.  No  one  is  kind  to  her  or  cares 
for  her.  "Last  time  I  was  at  John's  house  Carrie  was  simply 
awful.  I  was  so  sick  I  could  not  sit  up  ;  I  wanted  her  to  talk  to  me. 
And  do  you  know,  she  left  me  and  went  to  a  club  meeting.  I  might 
have  died,  but  Carrie  didn't  care."  This  is  her  old  story  of  the  way 
in  which  she  is  abused. 

P'inally,  when  the  excitement  of  coming  lias  passed,  and  all  the 
news  has  been  told,  she  leaves  for  another  place,  where  she  doubt- 
less follows  the  same  program. 

EXERCISES 
I 

Write  a  short  expository  sketch  of  some  character  in  a  novel  or 
a  play  that  you  have  recently  studied.  Make  your  sketch  an  ex- 
planation of  the  qualities  the  character  possesses,  not  a  condensed 
narration  of  the  part  he  or  she  plays  in  the  story. 

II 

Write  an  informal  character  sketch  of  one  of  the  following  per- 
sons.   Make  the  subject  of  your  sketch  vivid  and  lifelike. 

1.  The  Town  Oracle. 

2.  The  Neighborhood  Gossip. 

3.  The  Cook. 

4.  The  Hired  Man. 

5.  The  Postmaster. 

6.  The  Choir  Leader. 

7.  A  person  of  your  own  choice. 

272.  Reviews  and  criticisms.  Reviews  and  criticisms  are  a 
form  of  exposition.  They  are  usually  published  in  newspapers 
and  magazines  and  are  written  on  a  large  variety  of  subjects, 


4o8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

such  as  books,  plays,  music,  painting,  and  sculpture.  We  shall 
here  consider  only  the  book  review. 

An  important  aim  of  the  book  review  is  to  estimate  the  value 
of  recently  published  books.  Good  reviews  are  helpful  in  two 
respects :  ( i )  they  guide  the  reader  in  his  selection  of  books  and 
(2)  they  give  him  knowledge  about  books,  as  distinguished  from 
knowledge  of  books,  which  is  just  as  legitimate  as  knowledge 
about  anything  else. 

A  book  review,  as  a  rule,  suggests  enough  as  to  the  con- 
tents of  the  book  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  reader,  yet  not 
enough  to  make  him  feel  that  it  is  unnecessary  for  him  to  read 
it.  Preceding  the  review  are  usually  given  the  name  of  the 
author,  the  name  and  address  of  the  publisher,  and  the  price 
of  the  book. 

The  following  book  review  illustrates  this  type  of  exposition : 

The  Story  of  Mankind,  by  Hendrik  Van  Loon.    New  York:  Boni 
and  Liveright.    192 1.    8vo,  xxviii-l-479  pp.    S5.00. 

"The  Story  of  Mankind"  is  a  book  primarily  for  children,  but 
even  grown-ups  will  find  it  interesting.  It  begins  with  the  begin- 
nings of  the  earth,  describes  the  rise  of  mankind  to  supremacy  over 
all  other  living  creatures,  traces  the  general  sequence  of  human 
progress,  and  touches  the  high  spots  of  history  down  to  the  present 
day.  All  this  is  done  in  a  series  of  sixty-three  narrative  chapters, 
each  chapter  forming  a  short  story  which  is  complete  in  itself.  No 
attempt  is  made,  of  course,  to  cover  all  the  events  in  every  land : 
the  author  has  confined  his  narration  to  those  things  which,  in  his 
judgment,  have  left  a  permanent  impression  upon  the  course  of  his- 
tory. Even  at  that,  there  is  an  abundance  of  material  with  which 
to  fill  his  galloping  chapters,  most  of  which  fairly  swirl  with  action 
and  romance. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Mr.  Van  Loon  comes  so  closely  on  the 
heels  of  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells.  Many  will  imagine,  no  doubt,  that  the 
''Story  of  Mankind"  is  merely  a  child's  edition  of  the  "Outline  of 
History,"  which  is  far  from  being  the  case.    There  is  no  resem- 


EXPOSITION  409 

blance  between  the  two  books,  whether  in  plan,  purpose,  work- 
manship, style,  or  illustrations.  Mr.  V'an  Loon  has  set  himself  to 
the  less  pretentious  task  and  has  performed  it  with  more  originality. 
He  travels  down  the  ages  at  a  much  more  rapid  pace,  passing  by 
those  personalities  who  happen  to  have  no  direct  connection  with 
his  story  and  spending  none  of  his  precious  space  in  pointing  morals. 
He  is  not  trying  to  revamp  history :  he  is  concerned  only  with  the 
outstanding  facts  and  forces.  His  aim  has  been  to  weave  these  into 
a  succession  of  short  stories  which,  by  their  wealth  of  action,  can 
be  trusted  to  catch  the  interest  of  young  readers.  In  the  realiza- 
tion of  this  aim  he  has  succeeded  remarkably  well. 

But  with  all  due  respect  to  Mr.  Van  Loon's  facility  in  story- 
telling, the  pictures  are  the  best  feature  of  his  book.  The  author 
makes  for  them  no  claim  to  artistic  excellence,  but  their  usefulness 
no  one  will  deny.  They  are  intelligible  to  the  average  child — 
which  most  of  the  illustrations  in  historical  textbooks  are  not.  This 
is  because  they  are  home-made  drawings,  which  seek  to  convey  ideas 
or  impressions  rather  than  to  portray  events.  Some  of  them  look  a 
bit  primitive,  to  be  sure,  but  so  do  the  products  of  a  child's  own 
pencil.  They  are  the  sort  of  pictures  that  a  child  would  draw  if 
his  hand  were  cunning  enough.  Mr.  Van  Loon  is  right  in  believing 
that  few  children  ever  forget  what  they  have  drawn,  while  most  of 
them  easily  forget  what  they  have  read.  Setting  youngsters  to  ex- 
press their  ideas  in  pictures,  no  matter  how  crude,  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  things  in  the  whole  educational  process.  Mr.  Van  Loon 
has  done  a  real  service  by  demonstrating  the  great  possibilities  that 
lie  in  this  direction.  Taking  the  text  and  illustrations  together,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  imagine  a  better  book  from  which  to  give 
children  their  first  lessons  in  history. — William  Bennett  Munro, 
in  Atlantic  Monthly,  April,  1922 

EXERCISES 

I 

Bring  to  class  a  good  book  review  that  you  have  read  in  a  news- 
paper or  a  magazine.  Be  prepared  to  enumerate  the  items  of  in- 
formation given  about  the  book. 


410  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Write  a  short  review  of  some  novel,  play,  volume  of  poetry,  or 
collection  of  short  stories  that  you  have  recently  read.  Try  to 
make  the  members  of  the  class  want  to  read  the  book,  but  avoid 
telling  them  too  much.    Do  not  resort  to  a  summary. 

Ill 

Explain  orally  why  you  like  or  dislike  one  of  the  following. 
Plan  your  explanation  by  means  of  a  simple  outline.  You  may 
illustrate  your  talk  by  reading  or  quoting  passages  that  enforce 
what  you  say. 

1.  A  story  in  a  recent  magazine. 

2.  A  poem  in  a  recent  magazine. 

3.  A  recent  novel. 

4.  A  poem  studied  in  class. 

5.  A  selection  of  your  own. 

6.  A  selection  suggested  by  your  teacher. 

273.  Newspaper  editorials.  Editorials  in  newspapers  are  in 
reality  brief  expositions  in  which  the  editor  explains  the  mean- 
ing of  events  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Editorials  differ 
from  news  items  in  several  ways.  News  items  are  generally  nar- 
ratives. Editorials  are  usually  expositions.  News  items  are  hur- 
riedly written  accounts ;  they  give  merely  the  facts,  or  what  are 
supposed  to  be  the  facts  at  the  hour  the  reports  are  written. 
Editorials  comment  on  facts,  show  which  are  more  important 
than  others  and  why,  and  help  readers  to  form  opinions  about 
them.  News  items  record  events  which  take  place  from  hour  to 
hour  every  day.  Editorials  often  place  these  present  events  in 
relation  to  the  past  and,  by  referring  to  experiences  of  men  in 
political,  business,  or  social  affairs,  point  out  what  the  present 
events  may  lead  to. 

Consequently  the  newspaper  editor  does  much  to  mold  pub- 
lic opinion  regarding  politics,  education,  and  social  conditions. 


EXPOSITION  4" 

The  editor  must  be  a  man  of  wide  knowledge  and  of  great 
accomplishments ;  he  must  keep  abreast  of  all  the  news  if  he  is 
to  understand  promptly  the  full  force  of  any  particular  item 
of  it ;  he  must  watch  every  rising  cloud  in  the  political  sky  and 
calculate  what  its  effect  will  probably  be.  His  knowledge  comes 
not  only  from  books  about  liistory  and  government  but  from 
close  contact  with  men  and  affairs.  Editorials  should  be  fair 
and  honest  in  judgment.  They  should  be  written  clearly  and 
vigorously,  but  the  attempt  to  gain  force  in  style  should  not 
lead  the  writer  to  distort  the  facts. 

In  our  ordinary  school  life  we  shall  not  have  occasion  to 
write  editorials  as  important  as  those  of  a  newspaper  editor. 
We  may  have  occasion,  however,  to  write  editorially  for  a 
school  paper  or  for  some  similar  publication,  and  then  we  should 
follow  the  methods  of  a  good  editorial  writer  in  so  far  as  they 
apply  to  our  case. 

The  following  editorial  illustrates  this  type  of  exposition : 

SCIENCE  VERSUS  CRIME 

A  great  advance  in  the  means  for  discovering  and  suppressing 
crime  came  in  when  telephone,  telegraph,  and  ocean  cable  made 
possible  almost  instant  communication  over  land  and  sea  routes. 
But  for  city  work  even  the  telephone  left  something  to  be  desired. 
At  some  critical  moment,  with  time  of  supreme  importance,  an 
officer  might  find  himself  far  out  of  reach  of  a  receiver;  under 
similar  circumstances  a  whole  squad  of  police  might  be  in  danger 
from  the  onslaught  of  a  desperate  mob.  But  in  these  latter  days 
the  "resources  of  civilization,"  as  Gladstone  once  called  them,  are 
less  than  ever  "exhausted,"  and  wireless,  their  latest  yield,  now 
lends  its  help  for  coping  with  both  the  single  offender  and  the 
law-breaking  crowd.  The  authorities  in  Paris  are  already  using 
automobiles  equipped  with  wireless  apparatus,  enabling  the  police 
charged  with  the  care  of  the  French  capital  to  cruise  about  the 
city  in  constant  touch  with  headquarters.    It  is  also  proposed  to 


412  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

employ  airplanes  similarly  provided  as  a  means  of  dealing  with 
riots  or  ''demonstrations"  that  threaten  peril  to  the  public  peace. 

Much  nearer  than  Paris,  the  city  of  Chicago  now  is  resorting  to 
wireless  for  the  protection  of  that  community  from  the  criminal 
class.  Preparations  are  under  way  to  equip  every  policeman  with 
a  miniature  wireless  telephone  small  enough  to  be  carried  in  the 
pocket,  as  well  as  to  provide  within  the  lining  of  the  officer's 
clothes  the  "antennae"  for  receiving  messages.  Headquarters  will 
thus  be  able  to  call  up  any  policeman  in  the  service,  in  whatever 
part  of  the  city  he  may  happen  to  be.  A  buzzing  sound  will  an- 
nounce the  call,  and  by  placing  a  small  receiver  to  his  ear  the 
officer  will  get  his  instructions  as  easily  and  distinctly  as  if  he 
were  connected  by  ordinary  telephone.  At  present  the  apparatus 
does  not  serve  for  sending,  but  its  completion  for  use  both  ways  is 
promised  at  an  early  date,  with  the  result  that  the  central  station 
will  then  be  within  speaking-distance  of  the  whole  force. 

Meanwhile  the  Chicago  patrol  wagons  and  rifle  squads  are  al- 
ready employing  wireless  telephones  for  both  receiving  and  send- 
ing; only  the  other  day  each  police  station  in  the  city  was 
furnished  with  a  portable  bullet-proof  shield  for  use  when  desperate 
criminals  defending  themselves  have  to  be  approached  and  over- 
powered. Add  the  fact  that  the  police  department  of  New  York 
City  is  now  asking  sanction  for  an  expenditure  on  "tear  bombs" 
to  be  used  for  dispersing  mobs  or  ousting  gunmen  from  cellars  in 
which  they  may  hide,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  in  these  scientific 
days  the  way  of  the  transgressor  is  indeed  becoming  hard. — 
Boston  Herald 

EXERCISES 


Clip  from  newspapers  and  bring  to  class  two  editorials  that  seem 
to  you  to  possess  the  characteristics  mentioned  above. 

II 

After  reading  several  editorials  in  your  school  or  town  paper, 
write  a  short  editorial  on  some  topic  connected  with  one  of  the 
following  subjects : 


EXPOSITIOx\  413 

1.  School  Spirit. 

2.  Better  Schools. 

3.  A  New  Gymnasium  (.Athletic  Field). 

4.  Interscholastic  Athletics. 

5.  Civic  Improvement. 

6.  Motion-Picture  Shows. 

7.  The  Consolidated  High  School. 

8.  Agricultural  Conservation. 

9.  Better  Roads. 

10.  A  subject  of  your  own  selection. 

274.  Expository  letters.  !Most  business  letters  and  many 
social  letters  are  short  expositions.  An  application  for  a  posi- 
tion explains  the  applicant's  preparation  and  fitness  for  the 
place  desired.  Letters  from  business  concerns  setting  forth  the 
merits  of  their  commodities,  as  well  as  letters  from  customers 
ordering  particular  articles,  are  expository.  A  large  number  of 
friendly  letters  are  written  to  inform  our  correspondents  as  to 
what  we  are  doing,  what  we  desire  and  plan  to  do,  or  why  we 
cannot  carry  out  some  previously  made  plan.  Formal  and  in- 
formal notes  of  explanation  or  apology  are  also  expository  in 
character. 

EXERCISE 

Write  specimens  of  the  following  types  of  exposition :  (i)  a  busi- 
ness letter,  (2)  a  friendly  letter,  and  (3)  an  informal  note.  The 
following  subjects  may  furnish  you  suggestions : 

1.  The  advantages  of  owning  a  home  in  a  recently  developed  sec- 
tion of  your  town. 

2.  The  inability  of  your  school  team  to  play  a  scheduled  game  with 
the  team  of  another  school. 

3.  A  statement  to  the  registrar  or  the  secretary  of  the  Y.M.C.A. 
employment  bureau  of  the  college  which  you  hope  to  attend,  indicating 
your  desire  for  a  college  education  and  your  willingness  to  work  for 
your  expenses,  and  asking  for  suggestions  as  to  how  you  may  accom- 
plish your  desire. 


414  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  The  superiority  of  a  summer  resort  of  which  you  know  over  one 
that  a  friend  of  yours  is  considering. 

5.  An  introduction  of  an  intimate  friend  to  another  friend  in  a 
distant  city. 

6.  An  application  for  some  responsible  position. 

7.  A  recommendation  of  a  book  you  have  read  or  of  a  play  you 
have  seen. 

8.  A  comment  to  a  friend  on  the  significance  of  some  recent  hap- 
pening in  your  school,  community,  or  town. 

9.  A  reply  to  the  letter  of  a  friend  who  has  written  you  asking  for 
your  opinion  of  the  car  your  father  has  recently  bought. 

10.  In  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  your  home  paper  discuss  some  civic 
improvement  that  you  regard  as  necessary. 

275.  Summary.  Exposition  is  that  form  of  composition  by 
means  of  which  we  give  explanations  of  facts,  methods,  ideas, 
and  principles. 

Clearness,  the  essential  quality  of  all  exposition,  depends  on 
our  fully  recognizing  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  amount 
of  information  that  our  hearers  and  readers  possess  about  the 
subject.  Every  exposition  should  be  constructed  according  to 
the  laws  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

The  principal  methods  of  exposition  are  often  the  same  as 
those  employed  in  developing  the  topic  of  a  paragraph. 

The  most  common  types  of  exposition  are  (i)  definitions, 
(2)  explanations  of  processes,  (3)  discussions  of  facts  and  ideas, 
(4)  essays,  (5)  expository  biography,  (6)  reviews  and  criti- 
cisms, (7)  editorials,  and  (8)  expository  letters. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING 

276.  Argument  defined.  If  we  tell  a  friend  how  to  swim,  or 
explain  to  him  the  value  of  a  college  education,  we  employ 
exposition.  But  if  we  try  to  persuade  him  to  go  swimming  some 
afternoon  or  to  convince  him  that  he  should  obtain  a  college 
education,  we  employ  argument.  The  chief  difference  between 
exposition  and  argument  is  this :  exposition  is  an  explanation  of 
facts  or  of  the  way  in  which  something  is  done,  to  make  other 
people  understand ;  argument  is  an  attempt  to  lead  other  people 
to  believe  that  our  opinion  about  something  is  the  correct 
one  and  to  induce  them  to  adopt  this  opinion  as  their  own.  In 
other  words,  argument  is  a  course  of  reasoning  designed  to 
convince  others  of  the  truth  or  falsity  of  something  in  dispute. 
We  are  often  arguing  without  realizing  it :  at  home,  at  school, 
at  work,  and  at  play  we  are  constantly  trying  to  make  others 
think  and  act  as  we  would  have  them. 

In  many  respects  exposition  and  argument  are  closely  related. 
All  argument  contains  a  large  amount  of  exposition,  for  we 
must  make  our  hearers  and  readers  understand  before  we  can 
really  convince  them  that  our  opinion  is  the  right  one.  Often 
we  are  able  merely  by  the  clearness  and  logic  of  our  explanation 
to  lead  people  to  believe  as  we  do.  Both  exposition  and 
argument  are  addressed  primarily  to  the  intellect,  though  argu- 
ment is  sometimes  reenforced  by  an  appeal  to  the  emotions. 
In  both  exposition  and  argument  we  may  frequently  see  fit  to 
employ  narration  and  description  for  the  purpose  of  illustration 
or  greater  vividness.  In  both  types  of  composition,  clearness  is 
of  primary  importance. 

41S 


41 6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

277.  Conviction  and  persuasion.  The  preceding  definition  of 
argument  calls  our  attention  to  the  twofold  purpose  of  this  form 
of  composition.  Its  first  aim  is  to  convince  another  person's 
reason ;  this  we  call  conviction.  Its  second  aim  is  to  persuade 
another  person  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  truth  which  he  has 
been  led  to  believe ;  this  we  call  persuasion.  Both  are  impor- 
tant in  argument.  If  Antony,  in  Shakespeare's  "Julius  Caesar," 
had  merely  proved  to  the  people  that  Csesar  was  their  friend 
and  had  not  deserved  death,  he  would  simply  have  convinced 
them.  But  when,  by  appealing  to  their  emotions  and  passions, 
such  as  love  of  military  glory  and  self-interest,  he  aroused  the 
mob  to  drive  Caesar's  murderers  from  the  city,  he  persuaded 
them  to  act. 

278.  Kinds  of  argument.  All  arguments  may,  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy,  be  classified  as  either  formal  or  informal. 

Formal  argument  is  an  attempt,  by  means  of  systematic  rea- 
soning and  direct  proof,  to  convince  persons  of  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  a  given  proposition.  It  demands  that  all  important 
contentions  be  supported  by  material  evidence  in  the  form  of 
proof  and  that  this  evidence  be  arranged  and  presented  accord- 
ing to  a  fixed  logical  plan,  called  a  brief.  Formal  argument  may 
be  a  plea,  a  defense,  or  a  debate. 

Informal  argument  is  closely  akin  to  logical  exposition.  In 
general,  it  is  a  sort  of  discussion,  such  as  frequently  develops  in 
everyday  conversation  or  in  animated  correspondence.  Like 
any  other  type  of  composition,  informal  argument  is  more 
successfully  constructed  by  means  of  an  outline,  but  such  an 
outline  is  much  simpler  than  the  elaborate  brief  of  formal  argu- 
ment. In  informal  argument,  moreover,  there  is  not  the  same 
necessity  as  in  formal  argument  to  cite  material  evidence  for 
every  statement  made. 

Because  of  our  greater  familiarity  with  informal  argument, 
we  shall  consider  this  type  first. 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  417 

I.  Informal  Argument 

279.  Uses  of  informal  argument.  Informal  ar<2;ument  we  em- 
ploy daily,  in  speech  if  nol  in  writing.  In  our  homes  we  often 
appeal  to  our  parents  to  reverse  a  decision  they  have  made 
restricting  our  actions,  and  many  of  us  attain  considerable 
skill  in  supporting  our  appeals.  In  conversation  with  our  friends 
differences  of  opinion  are  constantly  arising,  and  we  instinc- 
tively defend  our  own  beliefs.  In  our  classes  questions  that 
provoke  lively  informal  discussions  are  always  coming  up.  In 
our  letters  we  frequently  attempt  to  alter  our  correspondent's 
views  or  effect  a  change  in  some  plan  of  his  by  pointing  out 
reasons  for  such  changes.  Editors  of  newspapers  and  magazines 
in  many  of  their  editorials  seek  to  convince  the  public  that  their 
interpretation  of  certain  questions  of  the  day  is  the  correct  one. 
Lecturers  and  writers  on  political,  economic,  scientific,  literary, 
and  religious  subjects  often  employ  informal  argument  as  a 
means  of  presenting  their  theories  and  opinions  convincingly. 
Though  informal  argument  lacks  the  elaborate  structure  and 
the  exhaustive  treatment  of  formal  argument,  it  is  often  very 
effective.   Persuasion  naturally  plays  an  important  part. 

In  informal  argument  are  employed  many  of  the  methods 
used  in  developing  the  topic  of  a  paragraph  (see  sections  91-97). 
Usually  we  begin  with  a  general  statement  of  our  opinion  and 
then  give  reasons  to  support  our  belief.  Frequently  we  sup- 
plement this  method  by  giving  details  and  by  citing  specific 
examples  as  illustrations  of  our  discussion.  In  some  cases  we 
find  comparison  and  contrast  helpful. 

To  be  effective,  informal  argument  must  conform  to  the  laws 
of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  A  carefully  prepared  out- 
line will  help  us  to  observe  these  laws,  which  are  sometimes 
more  difficult  to  obey  in  argument  than  in  other,  simpler  kinds 
of  writing. 


41 8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

In  the  following  passage  the  writer  has  presented  his  opinion 
more  effectively  by  means  of  informal  argument  than  he  could 
have  done  by  exposition  alone.  He  begins  with  a  general  state- 
ment of  his  opinion  and  then  presents  details  in  support  of  his 
statement. 

SELECTING  IMMIGRANTS 

Better  than  exclusion  would  be  a  plan  of  restriction  which  would 
select  those  who  were  capable  of  entering  the  well-paid  occupations 
and  exclude  those  who  would  crowd  into  occupations  where  wages 
are  already  too  low.  The  best  way  to  do  this  would  be  to  reverse 
our  present  contract-labor  law  and  admit  only  such  immigrants  as 
could  present  contracts,  signed  by  responsible  employers,  guaran- 
teeing employment  at  five  dollars  a  day  for  at  least  a  year.  (It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  wage  should  be  exactly  five  dollars.  That 
figure  is  named  because  it  is  about  the  minimum  on  which  a  family 
can  be  supported  in  comfort  and  decency  in  any  large  city  in  this 
country.  It  is  essential  that  there  be  some  minimum  wage  at- 
tached to  these  contracts.)  This  would  admit  all  the  laborers  who 
were  really  needed.  No  employer  can  say,  with  a  straight  face, 
that  he  needs  men  so  very  badly  unless  he  is  willing  to  pay  them 
five  dollars  a  day.  At  the  same  time  it  would  prevent  the  coming 
of  hordes  of  cheap  laborers  whose  influence  is  to  depress  the  wages 
of  unskilled  labor.  It  would  make  the  lower  grades  of  labor  so 
scarce  as  eventually  to  make  five  dollars  a  day  the  actual  minimum 
wage  without  the  difficulty  of  enforcing  a  minimum-wage  law. 
This  would  automatically  take  care,  also,  of  the  distribution  of  our 
immigrants,  because  they  would  go  only  to  those  places  where  they 
were  badly  needed.  This  v.^ould  be  very  much  better  than  any  im- 
migration commission  could  distribute  them,  besides  saving  for  use- 
ful work  the  man-power  that  would  be  wasted  upon  the  commission. 

The  literacy  test  as  a  means  of  selecting  immigrants  is  vastly 
better  than  no  test  at  all.  This  is  said  with  a  full  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  literacy  is  not  an  invariable  test  of  character.  Neither 
is  it  an  invariable  test  for  fitness  for  the  civil  service  nor  for  en- 
trance to  college.    It  is  believed,  however,  that  if  all  literate  im- 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  419 

migrants  are  arranged  in  one  group  and  illiterates  in  another,  the 
average  of  the  literates  would  be  above  that  of  the  illiterates. 
Excluding  illiterates  would  therefore  improve  the  average  quality 
of  our  immigrants. 

Again,  the  illiterates  go  predominantly  into  the  unskilled  trades 
where  wages  are  low.  The  exclusion  of  illiterates  therefore  tends 
to  make  unskilled  labor  scarce,  while  the  admission  of  literates 
would  permit  us  to  get  the  skilled  labor  we  need ;  that  is,  to  in- 
crease our  supply  of  any  kind  of  labor  which  can  in  any  sense  be 
said  to  be  scarce. 

\\'hatever  immigration  policy  is  adopted  we  must  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  the  essential  thing  is  to  restrict.  Unless  the  number 
of  unskilled  laborers  is  materially  reduced,  the  immigration  policy 
will  do  nothing  for  labor.  If  the  number  of  unskilled  laborers  is 
materially  reduced,  it  will  tend  to  make  unskilled  labor  scarce  and 
hard  to  find.  Our  democratic  institutions,  under  which  every 
human  being  is  encouraged  to  rise  in  the  economic  scale,  and  our 
system  of  popular  education,  which  makes  it  easy  for  the  rising 
generation  to  avoid  the  unskilled  and  poorly  paid  and  to  enter  the 
skilled  and  highly  paid  occupations,  will  combine  to  thin  out  the 
unskilled  laborers.  These  democratic  institutions,  however,  will 
not  relieve  the  oversupply  of  unskilled  labor  if  we  continue  to  im- 
port it  in  unlimited  quantities.  Any  kind  of  restriction,  therefore, 
is  better  than  no  restriction.  In  addition  to  the  literacy  test,  any 
other  test  which  will  actually  reduce  the  numbers  imported  and 
permit  us  to  select  the  more  desirable  applicants  is  a  good  proposal, 
though  some  may  be  better  than  others. — Carver,  '' Principles  of 
National  Economy" 

EXERCISES 

I 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  give  orally  an  informal  argument  on 
one  of  the  following  subjects.  After  you  have  studied  both  sides 
of  the  question  make  a  simple  outline  of  the  points  that  you  intend 
to  bring  out  in  your  talk.  Try  to  convince  the  members  of  the 
class  of  the  correctness  of  your  opinion  by  your  logical  reasoning 
and  effective  presentation. 


420  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  Civilized  man  is  being  mastered  by  his  own  inventions. 

2.  A  lie  is  sometimes  justifiable. 

3.  All  gasoline  stations  should  be  closed  on  Sunday. 

4.  Motion-picture  theaters  should  be  kept  open  on  Sunday. 

5.  MiUiners  should  be  prohibited  from  trimming  hats  with  birds 
and  feathers. 

6.  Manual  training  and  domestic  science  should  be  made  compul- 
sory throughout  the  four  years  of  high  school. 

7.  The  study  of  science  is  more  valuable  as  a  preparation  for  life 
than  the  study  of  languages. 

8.  Women  voters  have  improved  conditions  in  this  state. 

9.  A  subject  suggested  by  your  teacher. 
10.  A  subject  of  your  own  choice. 

II 

Write  one  of  the  following  letters,  in  which  you  make  use  of 
informal  argument.  State  your  opinion  and  set  forth  your  reasons 
clearly  and  forcefully. 

1.  A  letter  to  your  state  senator  or  representative  urging  him  to 
propose  or  vote  for  a  certain  measure. 

2.  A  letter  in  reply  to  one  you  have  received  from  a  "self-made" 
relative  who  insists  that  in  getting  a  college  education  you  will  be 
wasting  both  time  and  money. 

3.  A  letter  to  a  friend  defending  a  book  that  he  has  vigorously  con- 
demned in  his  last  letter. 

4.  A  letter  to  your  aunt  defending  "these  modern  girls." 

5.  A  letter  to  a  friend  urging  him  to  change  his  plans  and  attend  the 
same  college  that  you  expect  to  enter  next  year. 

6.  A  letter  to  your  friend's  mother,  in  which  you  try  to  persuade  her 
to  allow  your  friend  to  join  you  at  a  summer  camp. 

7.  A  letter  on  a  subject  of  your  own  choice. 

Ill 

Write  one  of  the  following  editorials  for  your  school,  town, 
county,  or  state  paper,  in  which  you  employ  informal  argument. 
Limit  yourself  to  one  or  two  important  points  and  then  set  forth 
your  opinion  and  reasons  clearly  and  forcefully. 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  42 1 

1.  An  editorial  favoring  the  establishment  of  a  junior  high  school 
in  your  town. 

2.  An  editorial  opposing  the  election  of  a  certain  candidate  to  a 
school  or  town  office. 

3.  An  editorial  proposing  and  urging  some   improvement  in  local 
agricultural  conditions. 

4.  An  editorial  urging  a  more  liberal  salary  for  county  demonstra- 
tion agents. 

5.  An  editorial  recommending  an  increase  in  the  local  tax  rate  for 
school  support. 

6.  An  editorial  recommending  free  textbooks  for  the  public  schools 
of  your  state. 

7.  An  editorial  censuring  the  recent  misconduct  of  an  athlete  or  an 
athletic  team. 

8.  An  editorial  proposing  a  '"tag  day"  for  the  local  Boy  and  Girl 
Scouts. 

9.  An  editorial  on  a  subject  of  your  own  choice. 

10.  An  editorial  on  a  subject  suggested  by  your  teacher. 


II.    Formal  Argument 

280.  The  value  of  debating.  One  of  the  most  profitable  forms 
of  argument  is  debating.  To  the  interest  of  the  subject  dis- 
cussed is  added  the  interest  of  a  game.  A  debate  is  carried  on 
by  two  sets  of  speakers,  called  teams.  Each  team  tries  to  show 
the  weakness  or  falsity  of  its  opponent's  side,  as  well  as  to  main- 
tain or  establish  the  truth  of  its  own.  Consequently  each  team, 
spurred  by  the  desire  to  win,  not  only  prepares  its  arguments 
carefully  but  takes  delight  in  presenting  its  case  in  a  lively  and 
forceful  manner.  But  more  important  than  the  mere  winning 
of  the  debate  is  the  development  of  confidence  in  ourselves, 
which  comes  as  the  result  of  the  practice  that  debating  affords 
us  in  clear  thinking,  quick  and  accurate  judgment,  foresight, 
and  facile  expression. 

281.  Subjects  for  debate.  The  best  subjects  for  debate  are 
those  which  concern  present  and  future  conditions,  and  which, 


42  2  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

furthermore,  we  and  our  audience  already  have  some  knowledge 
of  and  some  interest  in.  The  questions  that  we  choose  should 
arise  out  of  our  information  and  experience.  They  should  also 
be  definitely  limited  and  properly  suited  to  our  ability  to  dis- 
cuss them  and  to  our  audience's  capacity  to  understand  them. 

282.  Wording  the  question.  Before  we  can  prepare  an  argu- 
ment, we  must  know  exactly  what  we  are  to  argue  about.  This 
means  that  we  must  use  great  care  in  wording  the  statement 
which  we  are  to  prove  or  disprove.  This  statement  is  called  the 
question.  We  may  take,  for  example,  the  topic  "Should  mili- 
tary drill  be  maintained  in  our  school  ? "  The  question  must  be 
a  complete  sentence,  with  subject  and  predicate,  as  above,  and 
it  must  be  a  simple  sentence,  not  a  compound  one.  The  reason 
why  the  question  must  be  a  sentence  is  that  there  may  be  two 
sides  to  the  argument:  the  affirmative,  which  upholds  the 
answer  ''yes,"  and  the  negative,  which  upholds  the  answer 
"no."  The  question  should  be  worded  with  brevity,  exactness, 
and  impartiality.  It  should  not  include  words  which  at  once 
cause  people  to  make  up  their  minds  on  one  side  or  the  other. 
The  following  question  causes  prejudice  at  once:  "Should  the 
town  license  motion-picture  shows  which  present  scenes  of 
brutality  and  crime?"  Does  not  the  clause  "which  present 
scenes  of  brutality  and  crime"  indicate  that  the  debater  is  prej- 
udiced toward  one  side  of  the  question?  Could  there  be  any 
argument  if  the  motion-picture  shows  gave  such  scenes  ? 

EXERCISES 
I 
Examine  the  following  questions  and  tell  why  they  are  incor- 
rectly worded : 

1.  The  United  States  Senate,  already  growing  to  have  too  much 
power,  should  be  nominated  and  elected  by  the  direct  vote  of  the 
people. 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  423 

2.  The  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands  should  be  speedily  granted  the 
self-government  for  which  they  are  fitted. 

3.  Military  drill  should  be  taught  in  the  common  schools,  and  all 
able-bodied  citizens  should  be  required  to  serve  a  term  in  the  army. 

4.  Baseball,  the  best  sport  for  boys,  is  better  exercise  than  football. 

5.  Highways  should  be  built  and  maintained  by  the  state,  and  all 
owners  of  property  bordering  them  should  plant  trees  by  the  wayside. 

II 

Prepare  five  correctly  worded  questions  for  debate  and  show 
how  they  are  correctly  worded. 

283.  Exposition  of  the  question.  Some  preparation  is  neces- 
sary before  we  begin  to  debate,  in  order  that  we  may  learn  just 
what  the  question  means  and  find  out  the  special  questions  on 
which  the  argument  turns.  For  instance,  suppose  two  boys  are 
arguing  the  question  ''Shall  we  go  swimming  this  afternoon?" 
Their  minds  are  at  once  busy  over  a  number  of  special  questions 
which  have  to  be  settled  before  they  decide  on  the  main  one. 
These  special  questions  may  be:  "Will  the  swimming  pool  be 
too  crowded?"  "Can  we  use  Air.  Brown's  car  to  go  out  to  the 
pool?"  "Can  we  get  back  before  supper?"  It  is  necessary  to 
find  out  what  the  special  questions  are  before  we  can  argue  at 
all.  We  may  find  these  by  means  of  definition  of  terms  and  by 
examining  all  points  about  which  there  is  a  conflict  of  opinion. 

284.  Definition  of  terms.  In  order  that  we  may  proceed 
logically  and  consistently  in  preparing  a  debate,  we  must 
clearly  define  all  terms  in  the  main  question  that  call  for  more 
exact  limitation  in  meaning.  Such  definitions  must  be  satisfac- 
tory to  persons  supporting  both  the  afiirmative  and  the  negative 
side  and  should  be  made  easily  intelligible  to  readers  or  to  an 
audience.  For  instance,  in  the  question  "Should  the  comic  sup- 
plement of  the  Sunday  newspaper  be  discontinued  ?"  an  exact 
explanation  of  what  is  meant  by  comic  supplement  must  be 
given,  so  that  a  certain  definite  kind  of  pictures  may  be  argued 


424  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

about— not  newspaper  pictures  in  general.  Again,  in  the  ques- 
tion "Is  the  treatment  of  the  Indians  by  the  United  States  un- 
just?" we  must  know  exactly  what  treatment  means  and  what 
unjust  means.  In  other  words,  we  must  know  what  the  present 
treatment  of  the  Indians  is  and  in  what  particular  way  it  has 
been  unjust. 

Sometimes  a  dictionary  will  give  the  needed  definition.  This 
source,  however,  is  often  insufficient,  and  we  must  seek  a  better 
definition  in  books  and  periodicals.  In  many  questions,  on  the 
other  hand,  all  terms  are  simple,  and  we  need  only  show  in  what 
particular  sense  we  use  them  in  our  question.  Again,  the  terms 
may  be  too  obvious  in  their  meaning  to  need  any  definition. 

285.  Conflict  of  opinion.  Suppose  we  have  as  our  topic  for 
debate  the  question  Should  state  censorship  of  motion  pictures 
be  adopted  in  the  United  States  ?  A  comparison  of  the  affirma- 
tive and  negative  sides  of  the  argument  will  reveal  certain  points 
about  which  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion.  For  example, 
both  sides  will  doubtless  agree  ( i )  that  the  standards  of  motion 
pictures  are  low  and  (2)  that,  to  raise  the  standards,  regulation 
and  review  are  necessary.  Such  points  as  these  may  therefore  be 
disregarded.  On  several  other  points,  however,  the  two  sides 
will  disagree.   For  instance,  the  affirmative  side  may  maintain 

( 1 )  that  the  existing  methods  of  censorship  are  not  satisfactory, 

(2)  that  state  censorship  would  improve  present  conditions, 
and  (3)  that  state  censorship  is  constitutional;  whereas  the 
negative  may  contend  ( i )  that  the  existing  methods  of  censor- 
ship are  reasonably  satisfactory  and  (2)  that  state  censorship 
is  unconstitutional.  Out  of  this  conflict  of  opinion  will  arise 
such  special  questions  as  the  following:  (i)  Are  existing 
methods  of  censorship  satisfactory?  (2)  Would  state  censor- 
ship improve  existing  conditions?  (3)  Would  state  censorship 
be  constitutional?  These  special  questions  will  form  the  sub- 
ject for  debate. 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  425 

EXERCISE 

Find  out  the  special  questions  in  dispute  in  the  following  subjects 
for  debate.  First  define  the  terms,  if  necessary  ;  then  make  a  list  of 
opinions  of  the  affirmative  and  the  negative  and  compare  them. 

1.  Should  military  drill  be  maintained  in  our  school  ? 

2.  Are  interscholastic  athletics  a  benefit  to  our  school  ? 

3.  Should  our  town  adopt  the  commission  form  of  government  ? 

4.  Should  studies  in  high  school  be  elective  ? 

5.  Should  members  of  school  athletic  teams  be  required  to  main- 
tain a  passing  grade  in  their  studies  during  the  playing  season? 

286.  Proof.  When  we  have  found  the  special  questions,  we 
choose  one  side,  affirmative  or  negative,  and  bring  forward  all 
the  facts  we  can  in  support  of  our  side.  These  facts  are  called 
the  proof.  We  cannot  make  people  believe  in  our  side  if  we 
merely  say  or  assert  that  things  are  thus  and  so.  Assertion  is 
not  proof.  We  must  support  our  arguments  by  facts  and 
figures  or  by  the  statements  of  persons  who  know  the  sub- 
ject. Such  persons  are  called  authorities.  The  best  sources  of 
authoritative  information  on  questions  which  are  interesting  to 
the  public  are  the  reviews  and  magazines,  such  as  the  American 
Review  of  Reviews,  the  World's  Work,  the  Outlook,  the  Lit- 
erary Digest,  the  Nation,  the  New  Republic,  and  the  Inde- 
pendent. By  the  aid  of  such  a  reference  work  as  Poole's  Index 
or  the  Reader's  Guide  we  may  find  the  titles  of  numerous  maga- 
zine articles  dealing  with  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  We  must 
be  sure,  however,  that  the  person  whom  we  quote  is  an  authority 
and  that  he  is  honest.  We  must  not  believe  everything  we  see 
in  print  simply  because  it  is  in  print.  When  we  quote  the  words 
of  an  authority,  or  even  when  we  make  reference  to  one,  we 
must  be  accurate.  Furthermore,  we  must  be  ready  to  give  the 
sources,  even  to  the  date  and  page  of  a  periodical,  or  the  volume, 
chapter,  and  page  of  a  book. 


426  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

287.  Refutation.  It  is  not  enough  to  prove  our  side  of  the 
question.  We  must  try  to  disprove  the  argument  of  our  oppo- 
nent. This  is  called  refutation.  We  may  refute  his  arguments 
by  showing  that  the  facts  he  states  are  not  true.  Unless  we  give 
due  attention  to  refutation  we  weaken  our  own  statements; 
for  even  when  these  are  sound,  our  contention  is  stronger  if  we 
can  show  that  the  assertions  of  our  opponent  are  wrong.  Refu- 
tation may  be  introduced  at  any  place  in  the  course  of  the 
proof  where  it  will  be  effective  in  weakening  our  opponent's 
argument. 

288.  Burden  of  proof.  The  proposition  for  debate  should  be 
so  phrased  that  what  is  called  the  burden  of  proof  will  rest 
upon  the  affirmative  side.  The  burden  of  proof  is  ''the  obliga- 
tion resting  upon  one  or  other  of  the  parties  to  a  controversy 
to  establish  by  proofs  a  given  proposition  before  being  entitled 
to  receive  an  answer  from  the  other  side."  Now  this  burden,  or 
chief  responsibility,  rests  on  the  side  which  advocates  some 
change  in  existing  conditions.  If  the  proposition  is  phrased 
affirmatively,— as,  "The  city  of  Milwaukee  should  be  governed 
by  commission,"— the  responsibility  rests  on  the  affirmative 
side.  In  this  case  the  affirmative  must  convince  us  that  the 
change  in  question  should  take  place.  The  negative  has  a  pre- 
sumption in  its  favor ;  that  is,  it  supports  that  side  of  the  case 
which  may  be  logically  assumed  to  be  correct  until  it  is  dis- 
proved. Thus  the  defense  has  the  advantage  of  position. 

289.  Persuasion.  The  purpose  of  persuasion  is  to  make  peo- 
ple believe  as  we  do  about  a  question  and  to  get  them  to  act  on 
their  belief.  By  persuasion  we  make  appeals  to  the  emotions, 
imagination,  sentiments,  and  interests  which  lead  people  to 
take  action.  We  can  stir  the  feelings  of  our  audience  by  specific 
language,  by  forceful  sentences,  by  anecdotes,  and  by  facts 
which  enforce  our  argument.  We  should  always  appeal  to  the 
nobler  motives  of  people,  such  as  their  love  of  justice  or  of  fair 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  427 

play,  their  patriotism,  and  their  sympathy.  Our  manner  of 
delivery  is  important.  Distinct  enunciation,  sincerity  in  our 
way  of  speaking,  and  a  natural,  ui)right  posture  will  all  be  of 
great  advantage  to  us. 

EXERCISE 

From  your  class  select  two  debating-teams  of  three  members 
each  who  will  debate  one  week  hence  a  question  that  they  or  the 
class  may  select.  'Ihe  rules  for  the  conduct  of  a  debate  will  be 
found  fully  explained  in  (iregg's  ''Handbook  of  Parliamentary 
Law"  or  Cushing's  "Rules  of  Proceeding  and  Debate  in  Delibera- 
tive Assemblies."  In  case  a  better  question  cannot  be  found,  one  of 
the  following  may  be  chosen  : 

1.  Should  our  school  publish  a  paper? 

2.  Should  reports  of  murder  trials  be  printed  in  newspapers  ? 

3.  Should  the  publication  of  the  comic  supplement  to  the  Sunday 
newspaper  be  discontinued  ? 

4.  Should  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  chewing-gum  be  prohibited? 

5.  Should  prices  of  the  necessities  of  life  be  limited  by  Federal  law? 

6.  Should  our  school  provide  a  free  clinic  ? 

7.  Should  our  town  maintain  a  night  school  for  persons  who  work 
in  factories  ? 

8.  Should  our  state  become  fully  self-supporting  ? 

9.  Should  every  person  be  allowed  to  spend  Sunday  as  he  pleases  ? 

10.  Should  students  who  know  of  the  dishonesty  of  others  in  school 
work  report  all  such  cases  ? 

11.  Should  a  boy  or  girl  who  is  going  into  business  have  a  college 
education  ? 

12.  With  the  teacher's  assistance  frame  a  proposition  deaUng  with 
some  problem  of  local  or  school  interest. 

290.  The  brief.  In  preparing  to  debate  a  question  before  the 
members  of  our  class,  we  may  find  that  brief  notes  and  a  simple 
outline  will  enable  us  to  collect  and  arrange  our  material  ade- 
quately. But  when  we  have  become  more  experienced  debaters 
and  take  part  in  formal  public  debates  or  write  a  formal  argu- 


42  8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ment,  we  shall  find  it  necessary  to  construct  a  logical  outline 
that  will  satisfy  the  three  fundamental  principles  of  structure. 
An  outline  for  a  formal  argument  we  call  a  brief. 

In  written  argument  the  question  to  be  argued  is  placed  as 
the  title;  as,  "Should  School  Fraternities  be  Abolished?"  The 
question  also  appears  later  in  the  form  of  a  statement  (usu- 
ally affirmative)  at  the  beginning  of  the  argument  proper;  as, 
"School  fraternities  should  be  abolished."  In  a  debate  the 
question  is  stated  as  a  resolution;  as,  '^'^ Resolved :  That  school 
fraternities  should  be  abolished." 

After  we  have  stated  the  question  accurately  in  concise  form, 
we  may  begin  our  outline,  or  brief.  The  three  divisions  of  the 
brief,  corresponding  to  the  three  parts  of  the  argument,  are 
introduction,  brief  proper,  and  conclusion. 

1.  Introduction.  The  introduction,  which  is  expository  in 
character,  usually  includes  six  main  parts  arranged  in  the  fol- 
lowing order :  ( i )  a  statement  of  the  nature  and  importance  of 
the  question;  (2)  a  statement  of  the  history  of  the  question; 
(3)  a  definition  of  terms;  (4)  an  enumeration  of  the  points 
on  which  both  sides  agree;  (5)  an  enumeration  of  conflicting 
arguments;  and  (6)  an  enumeration,  in  interrogative  form,  of 
the  special  questions  to  be  argued. 

2.  Brief  proper.  At  the  beginning  of  the  brief  proper  the 
main  question  is  stated  affirmatively.  Following  this,  each 
special  question  contained  in  the  last  section  of  the  introduc- 
tion is  expressed  as  a  declarative  sentence  and  forms  one  of  the 
main  divisions  of  the  argument  proper.  Under  each  special 
question  are  arranged  the  facts  that  go  to  prove  or  refute  it. 

3.  Conclusion.  This  final  division  consists  of  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  the  argument,  followed  by  a  formal  statement  that  the 
main  question  has  been  proved. 

The  following  student  brief  of  a  formal  written  argument 
will  illustrate  the  form  and  contents  of  this  special  kind  of 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  429 

outline.  Notice  that  each  numbered  or  lettered  main  division, 
together  with  its  subdivisions,  is  a  complete  sentence  anrl  that 
each  heading  contains  only  a  sint^le  assertion.  Note  also  that, 
in  the  brief  proper,  each  subordinate  assertion  is  connected  with 
the  one  on  which  it  depends  by  the  conjunction  J  or. 

SHOULD    STATE   CENSORSHIP   OF    MOTION    PICTURES    BE 
ADOPTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES? 

Introduction 

I.  Public  interest  in  the  question  of  state  censorship  of  motion  pic- 
tures arises  from  the  fact  that  the  public  throughout  the  country 
is  protesting  against  the  alleged  unrestricted  methods  of  the 
motion-picture  industry  and  against  the  ineffectiveness  of  the 
National  Board  of  Review. 
II.  The  history  of  the  question  is  as  follows  : 

A.  During  the  year   igig  measures  proposing  the  enactment  of 

laws  for  the  censorship  of  all  motion  pictures  prior  to  their 
public  exhibition  were  introduced  in  the  legislatures  of 
twenty-three  states  and  in  Congress. 

B.  Four   states  —  Kansas,    Maryland,    Ohio,   and    Pennsylvania  — 

and  every  province  in  Canada  already  have  censorship  of 
motion  pictures  by  state  officials. 
III.  The   following  explanations  will  facilitate  the   discussion   of  the 
question  and  prevent  misunderstanding : 

A.  The  National   Board   of  Review  is  a  self-appointed,   unpaid 

group  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-tive  men  and 
women,  with  New  York  City  as  its  headquarters,  which  has 
set  itself  up  as  the  only  authority  capable  of  impartially 
judging  films  and  of  controlling  the  industry. 

1.  It  has  been  in  existence  since  igog. 

2.  It  is  not  a  Federal  board,  as  its  name  might  indicate. 

B.  The  underlying  principle  of  state  censorship,  as  practiced  in 

Kansas,  Maryland,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  and  in  every 
province  in  Canada,  is  the  examination  and  licensing  of  every 
film  by  an  official  board  with  power  to  debar  films  or  parts 
of  films  which  are  deemed  vicious. 


430  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

C.  Vicious  films  may  be  defined  as  films  which  debase  and  corrupt 
morals  by  showing  methods  of  committing  crime ;  films 
which  are  sexually  exciting  or  which  depict  marital  infidelity 
as  though  it  were  a  normal  thing;  pictures  of  cruelty,  bru- 
tality, and  inhuman  acts ;  and  pictures  which  are  sacri- 
legious, obscene,  or  indecent. 
IV.  Both  sides  agree 

A.  That  the  standards  of  motion  pictures  are  low. 

B.  That  to  raise  the  standards,  regulation  and  review  are  necessary. 

C.  That  to  regulate  motion  pictures  effectively  it  is  necessary  to 

have  a  careful  examination  of  every  film  by  capable  per- 
sons before  it  is  released  for  exhibition. 
V.  The  conflicting  arguments  on  the  question  are  as  follows: 

A.  Those  in  favor  of  state  censorship  believe 

1.  That  the  existing  methods  of  censorship  are  not  satisfactory. 

2.  That  state  censorship  would  improve  present  conditions. 

3.  That  state  censorship  is  constitutional. 

B.  Those  opposed  to  state  censorship  believe 

1.  That   the   existing  methods   of   censorship  are   reasonably 

satisfactory. 

2.  That  state  censorship  is  unconstitutional. 

VI.  From  this  conflict  of  opinion  it  appears  that  the  special  questions 
to  be  determined  are 

A.  Are  existing  methods  of  censorship  satisfactory? 

B.  Would  state  censorship  improve  existing  conditions  ? 

C.  Would  state  censorship  be  constitutional  ? 

Brief  Proper 

State  censorship  of  motion  pictures  should  be  adopted,  for 
I.  The  existing  methods  of  censorship  are  unsatisfactory  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  public,  for 
A.  The  National  Board  of  Review  is  ineffective,  for 

1.  It  has  no  legai  power  to  enforce  its  decisions. 

2.  It  is  merely  a  tool  of  the  association  of  motion-picture 

producers,  by  whom  it  is  supported. 

3.  A  very  considerable  percentage  of  the  pictures  approved  by 

this  unofficial  board  have  been  declared  by  local  and  state 
censorship  boards  unfit  for  exhibition. 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  431 

B.  Present  laws  do  not  meet  the  need,  for 

1.  They  recjuire  complaint  from  the  pubhc  in  order  to  have  a 

film  withdrawn  from  exhibition  at  a  theater. 

2.  They  fix   the    responsibility    for   showing   vicious   pictures 

on  no  person  or  group  of  persons. 

3.  They  punish  offenders  only  after  a  vicious  picture  has  been 

shown  and  seen  by  thousands  of  people. 
II.  State  censorship  would  improve  e.xisting  conditions,  for 

A.  It  would  save  great  sums  of  money  spent  in  the  maintenance 

of  local  and  municipal  censorship  boards. 

B.  It  would  create  a  board  of  officers  responsible  to  the  people  of 

the  state. 

C.  It  would  create  a  uniform  standard  of  judging  films  for  the 

entire  state. 
III.  State  censorship  would  be  constitutional,  for 

A.  It  has  become  implied  in  the  Constitution  that  the  Supreme 

Court,  with  the  consent  of  Congress,  may  infringe  upon  the 
liberty  of  the  people  when  such  an  infringement  results  in 
benefit  to  the  whole  f)eople. 

B.  The  Federal  government  has  already  established  a  precedent 

by  enacting  the  Eighteenth  Amendment,  which  makes  illegal 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  alcoholic  liquors. 

C.  If  state  censorship  were  not  constitutional,  the  Supreme  Court 

would  already  have  declared  it  unconstitutional  in  Kansas, 
Maryland,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Conclusion 

I.  Since  the  present  methods  of  censoring  motion  pictures  are  un- 
satisfactory ; 
II.  Since  state  censorship  would  improve  existing  conditions  ;   and 
III.  Since  state  censorship  would  be  constitutional, — 

Therefore,    state    censorship    of    motion    pictures    should    be 
adopted  in  the  United  States  by  all  states  that  are  now  without  it. 

291.  Developing  the  brief  into  an  argument.  When  we  have 
collected  all  the  necessary  material  and  have  made  a  logical 
brief,  our  work  is  more  than  half  completed.  The  final  step  in 
the  construction  of  our  argument  is  the  elaboration  of  the 


432  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

brief.  This  we  accomplish  by  developing  each  division  and  sub- 
division by  means  of  specific  details  and  references  to  authori- 
ties on  our  subject.  Great  care  should  be  used  to  make  the 
transition  from  one  heading  to  another  perfectly  clear.  Though 
we  should  follow  the  brief  closely,  we  should  avoid  making  the 
argument  too  mechanical  and  stilted  in  expression.  This  we 
can  do  by  writing  with  earnestness  and  sincerity  and  by  skill- 
fully combining  persuasion  with  conviction. 

EXERCISE 

Make  as  complete  a  brief  as  you  can  of  one  of  the  following 
questions  and  then  write  the  argument : 

1.  Should  motion  pictures  be  used  in  school  work? 

2.  Should  our  school  have  a  new  gymnasium? 

3.  Should  all  students  be  required  to  study  at  least  one  foreign 
language  throughout  high  school? 

4.  Should  high-school  students  be  permitted  free  election  of  courses  ? 

5.  Should  the  honor  system  in  examinations  be  adopted  by  the 
students  of  our  high  school  ? 

6.  Should  capital  punishment  be  abolished  ? 

7.  Should  Students  be  allowed  to  participate  in  assembly  exercises  ? 

8.  Should  cartoons  of  public  officials  be  published  in  newspapers  and 
magazines  ? 

9.  Should  all  members  of  the  fire  department  be  paid  ? 
10.  A  question  of  present  local  interest. 

292.  Summary.  Argument  is  that  form  of  composition  by 
means  of  which  we  attempt  to  convince  others  of  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  something  in  dispute.  Argument  has  a  twofold  pur- 
pose :  to  convince  and  to  persuade. 

Arguments  are  of  two  kinds:  formal  and  informal.  Formal 
argument  is  an  attempt,  by  means  of  systematic  reasoning  and 
direct  proof,  to  convince  persons  of  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a 
given  proposition.  All  details  of  evidence  and  proof  must  be 
arranged  according  to  a  fixed  logical  plan,  called  a  brief.   In- 


ARGUMENT  AND  DEBATING  433 

formal  argument,  which  is  closely  akin  to  exposition,  is  usually 
a  discussion,  and  depends  on  a  course  of  general  or  theoretical 
reasoning  rather  than  on  systematic  proof. 

Debating  is  valuable  practice  in  oral  composition,  for  it 
teaches  us  not  only  to  support  our  arguments  by  evidence  and 
persuasion  but  also  to  think,  more  clearly  and  quickly  and  to 
express  our  thoughts  more  effectively. 

The  question  for  debate  should  be  carefully  chosen  and  accu- 
rately worded.  The  special  questions  that  constitute  the  points 
at  issue  should  be  discovered  by  defining  all  terms  in  the  main 
question  that  are  not  clear  and  by  examining  all  points  about 
which  there  is  a  conflict  of  opinion. 

Every  step  in  our  argument  must  be  supported  by  proof.  In 
addition  to  proving  each  point  on  our  side  of  an  argument,  we 
must  try  to  refute  the  argument  of  our  opponent.  Every  propo- 
sition should  be  so  worded  that  the  burden  of  proof  will  rest 
upon  the  affirmative  side.  Persuasion  and  a  good  oral  delivery 
will  greatly  enhance  the  effectiveness  of  our  argument. 

In  preparing  a  formal  argument  for  public  presentation, 
either  in  debate  or  in  writing,  we  should  arrange  our  material 
in  logical  order  by  means  of  a  well-constructed  brief.  In  elabo- 
rating the  brief  into  the  finished  argument,  we  should  develop 
each  division  and  subdivision  adequately  and  should  make  the 
transition  from  one  heading  to  another  perfectly  clear.  We 
should  write  with  earnestness  and  sincerity  and  combine  per- 
suasion with  conviction. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  SHORT  STORY 

293.  The  short  story  defined,  A  short  story  is  a  brief  com- 
plex narrative  composed  of  a  series  of  causally  related  incidents 
skillfully  arranged  by  means  of  a  plot  to  present  effectively  a 
struggle  and  its  outcome.  The  incidents  that  make  up  a  simple 
narrative  are  related  one  to  another  merely  in  the  order  of  time, 
whereas  the  incidents  composing  a  short  story  must  be  arranged 
according  to  their  cause-and-effect  sequence,  even  though  this 
sequence  may  violate  the  time  order.  By  plot  is  meant  the  plan 
which  the  author  devises  as  a  means  of  telling  his  story  more 
effectively.  In  making  this  plan  the  writer  is  guided  by  his 
purpose  in  relating  the  story  and  by  the  nature  of  its  out- 
come, which  he  must  foresee  from  the  very  beginning.  Since  in 
the  majority  of  short  stories  there  are  two  opposing  forces 
which  result  in  conflicting  lines  of  action,  a  struggle  of  some 
kind  forms  the  basis  of  the  story  action.  This  struggle  may  be 
either  serious  or  humorous,  physical,  mental,  or  emotional.  As 
a  means  of  heightening  the  reader's  interest  the  author  of  a 
short  story,  by  arranging  incidents  in  such  an  order  as  to  lead 
up  to  a  point  of  greatest  interest,  called  the  climax,  creates  sus- 
pense as  to  the  outcome  of  the  struggle.  For  this  reason  most 
short  stories  are  the  product  of  the  writer's  invention  and  are 
therefore  fictitious,  whereas  simple  narratives  are  usually  true 
accounts  of  actual  happenings.  Imagination  is  a  most  impor- 
tant asset  of  the  short-story  writer, 

294.  Characteristics  of  the  short  story.  In  addition  to  the 
definition  given  above,  let  us  consider  some  of  the  more  notice- 
able characteristics  of  the  short  story. 

434 


THE  SHORT  STORY  435 

Length.  Though  many  narratives  that  are  brief  are  in  no 
sense  short  stories,  comparative  brevity  is  an  external  charac- 
teristic of  the  short  story.  The  majority  of  short  stories  are 
included  between  the  limits  of  2000  anrl  7500  words.  \'ery  few 
exceed  20,000  words. 

Number  of  characters.  Because  of  the  .small  compass  in 
which  he  has  chosen  to  work,  the  writer  of  the  short  story  care- 
fully avoids  bringing  in  any  character  that  is  not  absolutely 
essential  to  the  effective  telling  of  his  story.  Rarely  do  we  find 
more  than  six  characters  who  are  really  concerned  with  the  ac- 
tion of  the  story,  and  often  the  number  is  much  smaller. 

Time  covered  by  the  action.  It  is  desirable  to  limit  the  time 
covered  by  the  action  of  a  short  story  to  as  brief  a  period  as 
possible.  Skill  in  selecting  a  point  of  beginning  near  the  in- 
tended climax  will  often  enable  the  narrator  to  compress  the 
action  of  his  story  into  a  few  hours,  as  in  Poe's  "The  Cask  of 
Amontillado,"  given  below.  In  other  instances  the  writer  will 
choose  two  or  more  significant  portions  of  action  that  concern 
his  plot  and  his  characters,  and  pass  over  the  unimportant  in- 
tervals of  action  between  these,  as  in  Bret  Harte's  "Tennessee's 
Partner"  and  in  Mrs.  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman's  "A  Gala 
Dress."  By  such  careful  choice  and  relating  of  incidents  the 
narrator  gives  the  reader  the  impression  that  the  time  covered 
by  the  action  is  relatively  short. 

295.  Essentials  of  the  short  story.  According  to  two  modern 
critics,^  there  are  five  essential  elements  in  a  properly  con- 
structed short  story.  These  they  enumerate  in  the  following 
order:  (i)  singleness  of  impression:  (2)  well-defined  plot; 
(3)  a  dominant  incident;  (4)  a  preeminent  character;  and 
(5)  a  complication  and  its  resolution. 

Since  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  the  father  of  the  modern  short  story, 
admirably  illustrated  all  five  of  these  essentials  in  "The  Cask 

^Esenwein  and  Chambers,  The  Art  of  Story-Writing. 


436  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

of  Amontillado,"  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  read  this  story,  which 
will  be  used  as  a  model  in  the  discussion  of  these  essentials  in 
the  sections  that  follow. 

THE  CASK  OF  AMONTILLADO 
By  Edgar  Allan  Poe 

The  thousand  injuries  of  Fortunate  I  had  borne  as  best  I  could, 
but  when  he  ventured  upon  insult,  I  vowed  revenge.  You,  who  so 
well  know  the  nature  of  my  soul,  will  not  suppose,  however,  that  I 
gave  utterance  to  a  threat.  At  length  I  would  be  avenged  ;  this  was 
a  point  definitely  settled — but  the  very  definiteness  with  which  it 
was  resolved  precluded  the  idea  of  risk.  I  must  not  only  punish,  but 
punish  with  impunity.  A  wrong  is  unredressed  when  retribution 
overtakes  its  redresser.  It  is  equally  unredressed  when  the  avenger 
fails  to  make  himself  felt  as  such  to  him  who  has  done  the  wrong. 

It  must  be  understood  that  neither  by  word  nor  deed  had  I  given 
Fortunate  cause  to  doubt  my  good  will.  I  continued,  as  was  my 
wont,  to  smile  in  his  face,  and  he  did  not  perceive  that  my  smile 
now  was  at  the  thought  of  his  immolation. 

He  had  a  weak  point — this  Fortunato — although  in  other  re- 
gards he  was  a  man  to  be  respected  and  even  feared.  He  prided 
himself  on  his  connoisseurship  in  wine.  Few  Italians  have  the  true 
virtuoso  spirit.  For  the  most  part  their  enthusiasm  is  adopted  to 
suit  the  time  and  opportunity — to  practice  imposture  upon  the 
British  and  Austrian  millionaires.  In  painting  and  gemmary  For- 
tunato, like  his  countrymen,  was  a  quack ;  but  in  the  matter  of 
old  wines  he  was  sincere.  In  this  respect  I  did  not  differ  from  him 
materially :  I  was  skillful  in  the  Italian  vintages  myself  and  bought 
largely  whenever  I  could. 

It  was  about  dusk,  one  evening  during  the  supreme  madness  of 
the  carnival  season,  that  I  encountered  my  friend.  He  accosted  me 
with  excessive  warmth,  for  he  had  been  drinking  much.  The  man 
wore  motley.  He  had  on  a  tight-fitting  party-striped  dress,  and  his 
head  was  surmounted  by  the  conical  cap  and  bells.  I  was  so 
pleased  to  see  him  that  I  thought  I  should  never  have  done  wringing 
his  hand. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  437 

I  said  to  him:  "My  dear  Fortunate,  you  are  luckily  met.  How 
remarkably  well  you  are  looking  today !  But  I  have  received  a 
pipe  of  what  passes  for  Amontillado,  and  I  have  my  doubts." 

'"How?"  said  he,  "Amontillado?  A  pipe?  Impossible!  And 
in  the  middle  of  the  carnival ! " 

'T  have  my  doubts,"  I  replied;  ''and  I  was  silly  enough  to  pay 
the  full  Amontillado  price  without  consulting  you  in  the  matter. 
You  were  not  to  be  found,  and  I  was  fearful  of  losing  a  bargain." 

"Amontillado!" 

"I  have  my  doubts." 

''Amontillado!" 

*'And  I  must  satisfy  them." 

"Amontillado!" 

"As  you  are  engaged,  I  am  on  my  way  to  Luchesi.  If  anyone 
has  a  critical  turn,  it  is  he.    He  will  tell  me — " 

"Luchesi  cannot  tell  Amontillado  from  Sherry." 

"And  yet  some  fools  will  have  it  that  his  taste  is  a  match  for 
your  own." 

"Come,  let  us  go." 

"Whither?" 

"To  your  vaults." 

"My  friend,  no;  I  will  not  impose  upon  your  good  nature.  I 
perceive  you  have  an  engagement.    Luchesi — " 

"I  have  no  engagement — come." 

"My  friend,  no.  It  is  not  the  engagement,  but  the  severe  cold 
with  which  I  perceive  you  are  afflicted.  The  vaults  are  insufferably 
damp.    They  are  incrusted  with  niter." 

"Let  us  go  nevertheless.  The  cold  is  merely  nothing.  Amon- 
tillado !  You  have  been  imposed  upon.  And  as  for  Luchesi,  he 
cannot  distinguish  Sherry  from  Amontillado." 

Thus  speaking,  Fortunato  possessed  himself  of  my  arm.  Putting 
on  a  mask  of  black  silk,  and  drawing  a  roquelaure  closely  about  my 
person,  I  suffered  him  to  hurry  me  to  my  palazzo. 

There  were  no  attendants  at  home ;  they  had  absconded  to  make 
merry  in  honor  of  the  time.  I  had  told  them  that  I  should  not 
return  until  the  morning,  and  had  given  them  explicit  orders  not 
to  stir  from  the  house.    These  orders  were  sufficient,  I  well  knew, 


438  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

to  insure  their  immediate  disappearance,  one  and  all,  as  soon  as 
my  back  was  turned. 

I  took  from  their  sconces  two  flambeaux,  and  giving  one  to 
Fortunato,  bowed  him  through  several  suites  of  rooms  to  the  arch- 
way that  led  into  the  vaults.  I  passed  down  a  long  and  winding 
staircase,  requesting  him  to  be  cautious  as  he  followed.  We  came 
at  length  to  the  foot  of  the  descent  and  stood  together  on  the  damp 
ground  of  the  catacombs  of  the  Montresors. 

The  gait  of  my  friend  was  unsteady,  and  the  bells  upon  his  cap 
jingled  as  he  strode. 

"The  pipe,"  said  he. 

''It  is  farther  on,"  said  I ;  "but  observe  the  white  webwork  which 
gleams  from  these  cavern  walls." 

He  turned  towards  me,  and  looked  into  my  eyes  with  two  filmy 
orbs  that  distilled  the  rheum  of  intoxication, 

"Niter  ?  "  he  asked  at  length. 

"Niter,"  I  replied.    " How  long  have  you  had  that  cough  ?  " 

"Ugh!  ugh!  ugh! — ugh!  ugh!  ugh! — ugh!  ugh!  ugh! — ugh! 
ugh!  ugh! — ugh!  ugh!  ugh!" 

My  poor  friend  found  it  impossible  to  reply  for  many  minutes. 

"It  is  nothing,"  he  said  at  last. 

"Come,"  I  said,  with  decision,  "we  will  go  back;  your  health  is 
precious.  You  are  rich,  respected,  admired,  beloved ;  you  are 
happy,  as  once  I  was.  You  are  a  man  to  be  missed.  For  me  it  is 
no  matter.  We  will  go  back ;  you  will  be  ill,  and  I  cannot  be  re- 
sponsible.   Besides,  there  is  Luchesi — " 

"Enough,"  he  said;  "the  cough  is  a  mere  nothing;  it  will  not 
kill  me.    I  shall  not  die  of  a  cough." 

"True — true,"  I  replied;  "and,  indeed,  I  had  no  intention  of 
alarming  you  unnecessarily — but  you  should  use  all  proper  caution. 
A  draught  of  this  Medoc  will  defend  us  from  the  damps." 

Here  I  knocked  off  the  neck  of  a  bottle  which  I  drew  from  a  long 
row  of  its  fellows. that  lay  upon  the  mold. 

"Drink,"  I  said,  presenting  him  the  wine. 

He  raised  it  to  his  lips  with  a  leer.  He  paused  and  nodded  to 
me  familiarly,  while  his  bells  jingled. 

"I  drink,"  he  said,  "to  the  buried  that  repose  around  us." 


THE  SHORT  STORY  439 

"And  I  to  your  long  life." 

He  apain  took  my  arm,  and  we  proceeded. 

"These  vaults,"  he  said,  "are  extensive." 

"The  Montresors,"  I  replied,  "were  a  great  and  numerous  family." 

"I  forget  your  arms." 

"A  huge  human  foot  (Par,  in  a  field  azure;  the  foot  crushes  a 
serpent  rampant  whose  fangs  are  embedded  in  the  heel." 

"And  the  motto?" 

"iVewo  mc  impunc  laccssit" 

"Good!"  he  said. 

The  wine  sparkled  in  his  eyes  and  the  bells  jingled.  My  own 
fancy  grew  warm  with  the  Medoc.  We  had  passed  through  walls 
of  piled  bones,  with  casks  and  puncheons  intermingling,  into  the 
inmost  recesses  of  the  catacombs.  I  paused  again,  and  this  time 
I  made  bold  to  seize  Fortunato  by  an  arm  above  the  elbow. 

"The  niter!"  I  said;  "see,  it  increases.  It  hangs  like  moss 
upon  the  vaults.  We  are  below  the  river's  bed.  The  drops  of 
moisture  trickle  among  the  bones.  Come,  we  will  go  back  ere  it 
is  too  late.    Your  cough — " 

"It  is  nothing,"  he  said;  "let  us  go  on.  But  first,  another 
draught  of  the  Medoc." 

I  broke  and  reached  him  a  flagon  of  De  Grave,  He  emptied  it 
at  a  breath.  His  eyes  flashed  with  a  fierce  light.  He  laughed,  and 
threw  the  bottle  upward  with  a  gesticulation  I  did  not  understand. 

I  looked  at  him  in  surprise.  He  repeated  the  movement — a 
grotesque  one. 

"You  do  not  comprehend?  "  he  said. 

"Not  I,"  I  replied. 

"Then  you  are  not  of  the  brotherhood." 

"How?'" 

"You  are  not  of  the  masons." 

"Yes,  yes,"  I  said ;  "yes,  yes." 

"You?    Impossible!    A  mason?" 

"A  mason,"  I  replied. 
"A  sign,"  he  said. 

"It  is  this,"  I  answered,  producing  a  trowel  from  beneath  the 
folds  of  my  roquelaure. 


440  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

"You  jest,"  he  exclaimed,  recoiling  a  few  paces.  "But  let  us 
proceed  to  the  Amontillado." 

"Be  it  so,"  I  said,  replacing  the  tool  beneath  the  cloak  and 
again  offering  him  my  arm.  He  leaned  upon  it  heavily.  We  con- 
tinued our  route  in  search  of  the  Amontillado.  We  passed  through 
a  range  of  low  arches,  descended,  passed  on,  and,  descending  again, 
arrived  at  a  deep  crypt,  in  which  the  foulness  of  the  air  caused  our 
flambeaux  rather  to  glow  than  flame. 

At  the  most  remote  end  of  the  crypt  there  appeared  another,  less 
spacious.  Its  walls  had  been  lined  with  human  remains,  piled  to 
the  vault  overhead,  in  the  fashion  of  the  great  catacombs  of  Paris. 
Three  sides  of  this  interior  crypt  were  still  ornamented  in  this 
manner.  From  the  fourth  the  bones  had  been  thrown  down,  and 
lay  promiscuously  upon  the  earth,  forming  at  one  point  a  mound 
of  some  size.  Within  the  wall  thus  exposed  by  the  displacing  of 
the  bones  we  perceived  a  still  interior  recess,  in  depth  about  four 
feet,  in  width  three,  in  height  six  or  seven.  It  seemed  to  have  been 
constructed  for  no  especial  use  within  itself,  but  formed  merely  the 
interval  between  two  of  the  colossal  supports  of  the  roof  of  the 
catacombs,  and  was  backed  by  one  of  their  circumscribing  walls 
of  solid  granite. 

It  was  in  vain  that  Fortunato,  uplifting  his  dull  torch,  endeav- 
ored to  pry  into  the  depth  of  the  recess.  Its  termination  the  feeble 
light  did  not  enable  us  to  see. 

"Proceed,"  I  said  ;  "herein  is  the  Amontillado.  As  for  Luchesi — " 

"He  is  an  ignoramus,"  interrupted  my  friend,  as  he  stepped  un- 
steadily forward,  while  I  followed  immediately  at  his  heels.  In 
an  instant  he  had  reached  the  extremity  of  the  niche,  and  iinding 
his  progress  arrested  by  the  rock,  stood  stupidly  bewildered.  A  mo- 
ment more,  and  I  had  fettered  him  to  the  granite.  In  its  surface 
were  two  iron  staples,  distant  from  each  other  about  two  feet, 
horizontally.  From  one  of  these  depended  a  short  chain,  from  the 
other  a  padlock.  Throwing  the  links  about  his  waist,  it  was  but 
the  work  of  a  few  seconds  to  secure  it.  He  was  too  much  astounded 
to  resist.    Withdrawing  the  key,  I  stepped  back  from  the  recess. 

"Pass  your  hand,"  I  said,  "over  the  wall;  you  cannot  help 
feeling  the  niter.    Indeed  it  is  very  damp.    Once  more  let  me 


THE  SHORT  STORY  441 

implore  you  to  return.  No?  Then  I  must  positively  leave  you. 
But  I  must  first  render  you  all  the  little  attentions  in  my  power." 

"The  Amontillado!"  ejaculated  my  friend,  not  yet  recovered 
from  his  astonishment. 

"True,"  I  replied;  "the  .Amontillado." 

As  I  said  these  words  I  busied  myself  among  the  pile  of  bones  of 
which  I  have  before  spoken.  Throwing  them  aside,  I  soon  uncov- 
ered a  quantity  of  building-stone  and  mortar.  With  these  materials 
and  with  the  aid  of  my  trowel,  I  began  vigorously  to  wall  up  the 
entrance  of  the  niche. 

I  had  scarcely  laid  the  first  tier  of  the  masonry  when  I  discovered 
that  the  intoxication  of  Fortunato  had  in  a  great  measure  worn  off. 
The  earliest  indication  I  had  of  this  was  a  low  moaning  cry  from 
the  depth  of  the  recess.  It  was  not  the  cry  of  a  drunken  man. 
There  was  then  a  long  and  obstinate  silence.  I  laid  the  second  tier, 
and  the  third,  and  the  fourth ;  and  then  I  heard  the  furious  vibra- 
tions of  the  chain.  The  noise  lasted  for  several  minutes,  during 
which,  that  I  might  hearken  to  it  with  the  more  satisfaction,  I 
ceased  my  labors  and  sat  down  upon  the  bones.  When  at  last  the 
clanking  subsided,  I  resumed  the  trowel,  and  finished  without  in- 
terruption the  fifth,  the  sixth,  and  the  seventh  tier.  The  wall  was 
now  nearly  upon  a  level  with  my  breast.  I  again  paused,  and  hold- 
ing the  flambeaux  over  the  masonwork,  threw  a  few  feeble  rays 
upon  the  figure  within. 

A  succession  of  loud  and  shrill  screams,  bursting  suddenly  from 
the  throat  of  the  chained  form,  seemed  to  thrust  me  violently  back. 
For  a  brief  moment  I  hesitated — I  trembled.  Unsheathing  my 
rapier,  I  began  to  grope  with  it  about  the  recess ;  but  the  thought 
of  an  instant  reassured  me.  I  placed  my  hand  upon  the  solid  fabric 
of  the  catacombs,  and  felt  satisfied.  I  reapproached  the  wall.  I 
replied  to  the  yells  of  him  who  clamored.  I  reechoed — I  aided — I 
surpassed  them  in  volume  and  in  strength.  I  did  this,  and  the 
clamorer  grew  still. 

It  was  now  midnight,  and  my  task  was  drawing  to  a  close.  I  had 
completed  the  eighth,  the  ninth,  and  the  tenth  tier.  I  had  finished 
a  portion  of  the  last  and  the  eleventh ;  there  remained  but  a  single 
stone  to  be  fitted  and  plastered  in.    I  struggled  with  its  weight; 


442  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

I  placed  it  partially  in  its  destined  position.  But  now  there  came 
from  out  the  niche  a  low  laugh  that  erected  the  hairs  upon  my 
head.  It  was  succeeded  by  a  sad  voice,  which  I  had  difficulty  in 
recognizing  as  that  of  the  noble  Fortunato.    The  voice  said: 

"Ha!  ha!  ha! — he!  he!  he! — a  very  good  joke  indeed — an 
excellent  jest.  We  will  have  many  a  rich  laugh  about  it  at  the 
palazzo — he !  he !  he !  — over  our  wine — he !  he !  he ! " 

"The  Amontillado!"  I  said. 

"He!  he!  he! — he!  he!  he! — yes,  the  Amontillado.  But  is  it 
not  getting  late?  Will  not  they  be  awaiting  us  at  the  palazzo — 
the  Lady  Fortunato  and  the  rest  ?    Let  us  be  gone." 

"Yes,"  I  said,  "let  us  be  gone." 

''For  the  love  of  God,  Montresor  l'' 

"Yes,"  I  said,  "for  the  love  of  God !" 

But  to  these  words  I  hearkened  in  vain  for  a  reply.  I  grew  im- 
patient.   I  called  aloud, — 

"Fortunato!" 

No  answer.    I  called  again, — 

"Fortunato!" 

No  answer  still.  I  thrust  a  torch  through  the  remaining  aperture 
and  let  it  fall  within.  There  came  forth  in  return  only  the  jingling 
of  the  bells.  My  heart  grew  sick — on  account  of  the  dampness  of 
the  catacombs.  I  hastened  to  make  an  end  of  my  labor.  I  forced 
the  last  stone  into  its  position ;  I  plastered  it  up.  Against  the  new 
masonry  I  reerected  the  old  rampart  of  bones.  For  the  half  of  a 
century  no  mortal  has  disturbed  them.    In  pace  requiescat. 

296.  Singleness  of  impression.  Now  that  we  have  read  "The 
Cask  of  Amontillado,"  if  we  ask  ourselves  what  single  impres- 
sion the  story  made  on  us,  we  shall  very  likely  agree  that  it  was 
one  of  horror.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  one  effect  that  Poe 
was  trying  to  produce.  Here,  stated  in  Poe's  own  words,  is  the 
principle  by  which  he  devised  his  stories : 

A  skillful  literary  artist  has  constructed  a  tale.  If  wise,  he  has 
not  fashioned  his  thoughts  to  accommodate  his  incidents;  but 
having  conceived,  with  deliberate  care,  a  certain  unique  or  single 


THE  SHORT  STORY  443 

e§ect  to  be  wrought  out,  he  then  invents  such  incidents — he  then 
combines  such  events — as  may  best  aid  him  in  establishing  this 
preconceived  effect.  If  his  very  initial  sentence  tend  not  to  the  out- 
bringing  of  this  effect,  then  he  has  failed  in  his  first  step.  In  the 
whole  composition  there  should  be  no  word  written  of  which  the 
tendency,  direct  or  indirect,  is  not  to  the  one  preestablished  design. 

Singleness  of  impression  is  the  principal  device  for  securing 
unity  in  the  short  story.  The  one  predetermined  effect  must  be 
produced  in  the  briefest  possible  space  by  means  of  careful 
selection  and  arrangement  of  incidents.  The  story  should  be 
told  with  the  greatest  amount  of  compression  and  emphasis. 

The  motivating  idea  of  a  story  should  not  be  confused  with 
singleness  of  impression.  The  motivating  idea  of  "The  Cask  of 
Amontillado"  (that  is,  the  idea  that  is  the  mainspring  of  the 
action  and  the  motive  which  drives  ]\Iontresor  on)  is  revenge, 
whereas  the  impression  produced  on  the  reader  is  horror.  In 
almost  every  short  story  a  little  study  will  enable  us  to  detect 
both  the  single  impression  and  the  motivating  idea. 

EXERCISE 

Read  again  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado"  and  point  out  the  inci- 
dents and  details  used  to  produce  the  impression  of  horror.  Can 
you  discover  a  single  sentence  that  does  not  help  to  establish  this 
effect?  Read  some  other  story  of  Poe's  and  point  out  the  single 
impression  and  the  motivating  idea. 

297.  Plot.  The  plot  of  a  short  story,  as  explained  above,  is 
the  plan  by  means  of  which  the  w-riter  arranges  the  incidents  of 
his  story  in  the  most  effective  order  to  produce  the  single  im- 
pression that  he  intends  his  story  to  make  on  the  reader.  In 
every  plot  there  are  three  elements:  a  cause,  a  result,  and  a 
series  of  incidents  that  link  the  two  together  logically.  Let  us 
illustrate  these  three  elements  by  reference  to  "The  Cask  of 
Amontillado." 


444  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  cause  is  stated  in  the  first  sentence:  "The  thousand 
injuries  of  Fortunate  I  had  borne  as  best  I  could,  but  when  he 
ventured  upon  insult,  I  vowed  revenge." 

The  result  is  seen  in  the  outcome  of  the  story:  Montresor 
has  accomplished  his  revenge  by  walling  Fortunato  up  in  a 
niche  and  leaving  him  there  to  die.  He  has  carried  out  his  reso- 
lution to  punish  with  impunity  and  to  make  himself  felt  as  the 
avenger. 

The  series  of  incidents  that  link  the  two  together  logically 
is  as  follows:  (i)  Montresor  encounters  the  intoxicated  For- 
tunato on  the  street  late  one  evening  during  the  carnival  season, 
greets  him  cordially,  and  tells  him  that  he  has  just  bought  a 
cask  of  Amontillado,  but  that  he  doubts  that  it  is  genuine 
Amontillado.  (2)  Fortunato,  whose  weakness  is  his  connois- 
seurship  in  wine,  insists  on  going  immediately  to  taste  the 
Amontillado,  and  Montresor  makes  him  all  the  more  eager  to 
go  by  telling  him  that  he  is  then  on  his  way  to  get  Luchesi  to 
taste  it.  (3)  Having  lured  Fortunato  into  his  family  burial 
vaults,  Montresor  intoxicates  him  still  further,  all  the  while 
goading  him  on  by  the  mention  of  Luchesi.  (4)  Having  finally 
lured  Fortunato  into  the  niche  previously  prepared  for  him, 
Montresor  chains  him  fast.  (5)  Fortunato,  sobered  by  fright  as 
he  is  being  walled  in,  realizes  Montresor's  motive  and  pleads  in 
vain  to  be  spared. 

A  skillfully  devised  plot  can  usually  be  stated  in  one  sen- 
tence. Such  a  statement  should  include  the  three  elements  of 
the  plot.  The  following  sentence  indicates  the  plot  of  ''The 
Cask  of  Amontillado":  Montresor,  having  been  insulted  by 
Fortunato,  vows  revenge,  and,  after  luring  the  intoxicated 
Fortunato  into  the  burial  vault  of  the  Montresors,  walls  him 
up  in  a  niche  to  die.  The  ease  with  which  such  a  plot  state- 
ment can  be  formulated  is  evidence  that  the  story  has  a  well- 
defined  plot. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  445 

The  following  passage  will  add  to  our  understanding  of  plot: 

The  plot  is  the  nucleus  of  the  story,  the  bare  thought  or  incident 
upon  which  the  narrative  is  to  be  builded.  ...  A  plot  implies 
action — that  is,  something  must  happen;  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
story  the  characters  must  be  differently  situated,  and  usually  dif- 
ferently related  one  to  another,  from  what  they  were  at  the  begin- 
ning. The  event  need  not  be  tragic,  or  even  serious;  but  it  must 
be  of  sufficient  importance,  novelty,  and  interest  to  justify  its 
relation  in  narrative  form.  In  general,  the  plot  of  a  short  story 
involves  an  incident  or  a  minor  crisis  in  a  human  life,  rather  than 
the  supreme  crisis  which  makes  or  mars  a  man  for  good.  .  .  .  Vet 
the  short  story  may  be  a  supreme  crisis  and  a  tragedy,  as  are 
Stevenson's  "Markheim,"  Hawthorne's  "The  Ambitious  Guest" 
and  "The  Birthmark,"  and  many  of  Poe's  tales;  but  these  are 
stories  of  an  e.xceptional  type,  in  which  the  whole  life  of  the  chief 
actor  comes  to  a  focus  in  the  crisis  which  makes  the  story.^ 

In  the  short  story  the  action  usually  consists  in  a  well- 
defined  struggle  of  some  sort.  Rarely  does  the  writer  follow  the 
precise  sequence  of  events  as  they  occur  in  actual  life.  Thus 
not  until  almost  the  end  of  the  story  does  Poe  tell  of  Montre- 
sor's  having  prepared  the  niche  for  Fortunato.  More  often,  by 
means  of  his  plot,  the  author  selects  and  arranges  real  and 
fictitious  incidents  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  impression 
desired  and  lead  to  an  effective  ending.  A  skillfully  devised  plot 
should  prepare  the  reader  for  the  outcome,  but  should  not  fore- 
shadow its  exact  nature  too  plainly. 

298,  Dominant  incident.  By  dominant  incident  is  meant  the 
main  action  that  constitutes  the  story,  as  contrasted  with  any 
minor  incidents  that  may  be  brought  in  as  a  means  of  making 
the  story  more  vivid  and  natural.  In  "The  Cask  of  Amontil- 
lado" the  dominant  incident  is  the  action  of  Montresor  in  aveng- 
ing himself  on  Fortunato  for  the  insult.  The  brief  compass  of 

^C.  R.  Barrett,  Short  Story  Writing.  Used  by  permission  of  Doubleday, 
Page  and  Company,  publishers. 


446  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  short  story  restricts  the  writer  to  one  main  action  or  domi- 
nant incident.  Every  plot  statement,  such  as  that  given  in  the 
preceding  section,  should  indicate  the  dominant  incident. 

299.  Characters.  The  characters  are  the  persons  in  the  story. 
Usually  in  the  short  story  one  person  stands  out  more  promi- 
nently than  the  rest.  Indeed,  some  stories,  such  as  Stevenson's 
"Markheim"  and  Jack  London's  "To  Build  a  Fire,"  deal  with 
but  one  principal  character  in  some  moment  of  great  excite- 
ment, peril,  or  passion.  The  person  who  dominates  the  story 
and  but  for  whom  the  action  would  not  take  place  is  the  pre- 
eminent, or  leading,  character.  In  ''The  Cask  of  Amontillado" 
Montresor  dominates  the  story.  Frequently  the  title,  as  in 
"Markheim,"  "Tennessee's  Partner,"  and  "A  New  England 
Nun,"  indicates  the  most  important  character. 

In  most  short  stories  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  preeminent 
character,  other  principal  characters  and  usually  a  few  neces- 
sary minor  characters.  In  almost  every  story,  as  in  "The  Cask 
of  Amontillado,"  at  least  two  characters,  representing  the  op- 
posing forces,  are  necessary. 

The  persons  in  a  short  story  may  be  characterized  by  two 
different  methods.  The  direct  method  consists  in  allowing  each 
person  to  characterize  himself  (i)  by  his  actions,  (2)  by  his 
speech  and  his  manner  of  speaking,  (3)  by  his  thoughts  and  his 
emotions,  and  (4)  by  his  reactions  when  he  is  associated  with 
other  persons.  The  indirect  method  includes  the  writer's 
(i)  description  of  the  person,  (2)  description  of  the  setting 
or  environment  in  which  the  person  finds  himself,  (3)  biograph- 
ical details,  and  (4)  analysis  and  explanation  of  character. 
Though  the  direct  method  is  preferable  in  most  short  stories, 
both  methods  are  often  employed  in  the  same  story. 

300.  The  complication  and  its  resolution.  In  plot  narrative 
the  conflict  of  characters  representing  two  opposing  lines  of 
action  gives  rise  to  a  complication,  or  plot  problem,  to  be 


THE  SHORT  STORY  447 

solved  in  the  course  of  the  story.  Something  happens  at  the 
beginning  of  the  story,  or  has  previously  happened,  that  brings 
about  the  conflict.  This  event  is  called  the  complicating  inci- 
dent. The  writer,  having  shown  us  the  complication  and  ac- 
quainted us  with  his  plot  problem,  proceeds  to  develop  the 
latter  with  proper  suspense  up  to  an  effective  clima.x,  anfl  then 
gives  us  the  solution  in  the  outcome  of  the  struggle.  In  "The 
Cask  of  Amontillado"  the  insult  suffered  by  Montresor  is  the 
complicating  incident.  The  plot  problem  consists  in  enabling 
Montresor  to  avenge  himself  on  Fortunato  with  impunity  and 
to  make  himself  felt  as  the  avenger.  The  climax  comes  with 
Fortunato's  final  cry  of  terror  and  despair:  "For  the  love 
of  God,  Montresor!''  The  outcome  is  given  in  the  few  remain- 
ing sentences  of  the  story. 

That  portion  of  the  action  of  a  story  that  precedes  the 
climax  is  called  the  rising  action ;  that  which  follows  it  is 
termed  the  falling  action.  The  outcome  of  the  action  is  often 
called  the  denouement. 

301.  Setting.  To  the  five  essentials  that  we  have  been  dis- 
cussing we  should  add  setting.  By  setting  is  meant  the  scene  of 
the  action  and  the  time  of  its  occurrence.  Both  the  place  and 
the  time  should  be  appropriate  to  the  action.  Often  writers  find 
places  so  interesting  in  themselves  that  they  write  stories  to 
present  the  peculiar  quality  or  atmosphere  of  such  places. 
Narratives  of  particular  settings  and  environments  are  called 
local  color  stories.  Many  of  the  stories  of  such  authors  as  G.  W. 
Cable,  who  wrote  of  old  New  Orleans,  or  of  Sarah  Orne  Jewett, 
who  wrote  of  New  England,  are  of  this  type.  The  experienced 
writer  always  tries  to  limit  the  setting  of  his  story  to  one  place 
as  well  as  to  a  single  occasion. 

302.  Point  of  view.  If  one  of  the  characters  tells  the  story, 
as  in  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  it  is  narrated  from  the  first- 
person  point  of  view.  If  a  person  outside  the  story  is  the  narra- 


448  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

tor,  as  in  ''Tennessee's  Partner"  and  "A  Gala  Dress,"  it  is 
related  from  the  third-person  point  of  view.  When  the  author 
tells  not  only  what  the  characters  did  and  said  but  what  they 
thought  and  imagined  as  well,  he  adopts  the  omniscient  point 
of  view.  Sometimes  point  of  view  is  spoken  of  as  the  angle 
oj  narration. 

303.  Where  to  begin  a  short  story.  In  general  practice, 
writers  of  short  stories  begin  as  near  the  point  of  climax  as 
possible.  The  nature  of  their  story  will  lead  them  to  adopt 
one  of  three  orders  of  narration:  (i)  the  chronological  order, 
if  it  closely  parallels  the  cause-and-effect  order;  (2)  a  modified 
chronological  order,  where  the  story  opens  in  the  midst  of  the 
action,  as  in  ''The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  with  the  necessary 
details  of  antecedent  action  supplied  as  the  story  progresses; 
and  (3)  the  inverted  order,  as  in  detective  stories,  such  as 
Poe's  "The  Gold-Bug"  and  "The  Purloined  Letter." 

304.  How  to  begin  a  short  story.  Since  the  writer  must  de- 
pend upon  the  opening  of  his  story  to  induce  people  to  read 
what  follows,  the  beginning  should  receive  special  considera- 
tion. A  good  beginning  must  be  clear  and  must  interest  the 
reader.  In  addition,  it  should  be  appropriate  to  the  particular 
type  of  story  that  it  introduces.  A  story  presenting  local  color 
or  some  specific  mood,  such  as  Poe's  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of 
Usher,"  may  begin  with  description  of  the  setting  and  its  effect 
on  the  narrator.  A  story  emphasizing  plot,  such  as  "The  Cask 
of  Amontillado,"  may  open  with  exposition.  A  story  of  char- 
acter, such  as  "Tennessee's  Partner,"  may  begin  with  general 
narration  leading  up  to  the  story  proper.  Other  stories,  such 
as  Jack  London's  "Love  of  Life,"  may  begin  at  once  with  vivid 
narration  of  the  immediate  action  of  the  story.  Often  a  begin- 
ning of  this  last  type  is  rendered  more  attractive  and  concise  by 
the  use  of  conversation,  as  in  such  stories  as  "A  Gala  Dress," 
Stevenson's  "Markheim,"  and  Kipling's  "Without  Benefit  of 


THE  SHORT  S'lORY  449 

Clergy."  As  near  the  bcsinnin<^  as  possible  the  writer  should 
inform  the  reader  where  and  when  the  action  takes  place,  who 
the  principal  characters  are,  and  in  what  unstable  situation 
they  luid  themselves.  Brevity,  directness,  clearness,  and  attrac- 
tiveness constitute  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  good  beginning. 

305.  The  title.  If  a  person  is  to  be  induced  to  read  even  the 
beginning  of  a  story,  he  must  usually  first  have  his  interest 
aroused  by  the  title.  Brevity  and  attractiveness  are  the  two 
primary'  qualities  of  a  good  title.  Brevity  demands  that  the 
title  be  either  a  single  word  or  a  short  phrase,  as  '"Markheim," 
''p:than  Brand,"  "The  Piece  of  String,"  and  ''The  Sire  de  Male- 
troit's  Door."  Attractiveness  is  attained  by  choosing  a  title 
that  is  suggestive  and  original,  as  "The  Lady,  or  the  Tiger?" 
"The  Monkey's  Taw,"  "A  Lodging  for  the  Night,"  and  "Pigs 
is  Pigs."  Though  a  title  often  suggests  the  general  character 
of  the  story,  it  should  never  reveal  the  outcome.  Euphony,  as 
in  "]yIarjorie  Daw,"  "The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,"  and  "The 
Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,"  is  a  desirable  quality  in  a  title, 
though  it  is  not  so  important  as  the  other  two  qualities. 

306.  Aids  in  writing  a  short  story.  In  addition  to  the  ele- 
ments and  requirements  of  the  short  story  thus  far  discussed, 
there  are  a  few  important  aids  that  the  writer  employs  to  make 
his  narrative  more  vivid  and  interesting. 

Contrast.  Characters  that  are  unlike  are  individualized  and 
better  understood  because  of  the  contrast.  Contrast  in  setting, 
too,  as  the  gay  street  scene  of  the  carnival  and  the  somber 
gloom  of  the  burial  vaults  in  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  is 
also  very  effective  in  emphasizing  both  action  and  character. 

Enveloping  action.  By  enveloping  action  is  meant  the  larger 
general  action  of  which  that  of  the  story  is  a  related  inci- 
dent or  part,  or  against  which  the  latter  is  placed  for  contrast 
or  proper  perspective.  Life  in  a  California  mining  camp  in  the 
days  of  forty-nine  in  "Tennessee's  Partner,"  the  carnival  cele- 


450  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

bration  in  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  and  life  in  Paris  during 
the  Hundred  Years'  War  in  ''The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door" 
illustrate  enveloping  action.  In  serving  as  the  background  of 
action  it  often  helps  to  contribute  atmosphere  to  the  story. 

Suspense.  Suspense  is  an  invaluable  aid  in  arousing  and  in- 
creasing the  reader's  interest  as  the  story  advances.  Since  the 
climax  should  come  as  near  the  end  of  the  story  as  possible, 
the  writer  arranges  his  incidents  in  an  ascending  series  of  minor 
climaxes  that  result  in  rapid  movement  and  a  growing  eager- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  reader  to  reach  the  turning-point,  or 
main  climax,  of  the  action.  Frequently  the  author  inserts  slight 
anticipatory  hints  that  furnish  the  observant  reader  suggestive 
clues  as  to  the  turn  that  the  action  may  take,  as  well  as  fore- 
shadow its  final  outcome.  The  experienced  writer  is  always 
careful  not  to  tell  too  much  by  such  hints,  for  suspense  is 
destroyed  the  moment  the  reader  feels  certain  of  the  exact 
nature  of  the  outcome.  In  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado"  we  find 
such  anticipatory  hints  as  Montresor's  reply,  "True— true,"  to 
Fortunato's  statement  "I  shall  not  die  of  a  cough";  the  motto 
on  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Montresors ;  and  the  trowel  which 
Montresor  draws  from  under  his  roquelaure. 

Dialogue.  Dialogue  contributes  animation  and  variety  to 
stories.  It  is,  as  we  have  noticed,  one  of  the  most  natural  and 
effective  methods  of  characterization,  but  characters  should  be 
individualized  by  what  they  say  as  well  as  by  how  they  speak. 
Care  in  the  choice  of  synonyms  of  the  verbs  said,  asked,  and 
replied  will  aid  the  writer  in  suggesting  a  person's  manner  of 
speaking.  In  writing  conversation  the  author  must  indicate  the 
person  who  utters  each  speech,  unless  the  identity  is  clearly 
implied.  Besides  characterizing,  dialogue  should  be  made  to 
advance  the  action  of  the  story.  Conversation  that  does  not 
serve  one  or  both  of  these  purposes,  but  is  merely  clever  or 
attractive  in  itself,  should  be-  excluded. 


THE  SHORT  SIORY  451 

307.  Sources  of  short  stories.  In  ^t-iu'ral,  a  writer  seem.i  to 
derive  the  working-suggestion  for  his  story  from  one  of  four 
sources,  the  first  three  of  which  Stevenson  enumerated  and 
discussed. 

1.  ''You  may  take  a  plot  and  fit  characters  to  it."  Such 
stories  as  Poe's  "The  Gold- Hug"  and  "The  Purhiined  Letter." 
Thomas  Hardy's  "The  Three  Strangers,"  Stevenson's  "The  Sire 
de  Maletroit's  Door,"  and  Stockton's  " The  Lady,  or  the  Tiger  ? " 
all  seem  to  have  had  plot  as  their  initial  source. 

2.  "  You  may  take  a  character  and  choose  incidents  and  situ- 
ations to  develop  it^  It  seems  probable  that  such  stories  as 
Bret  Harte's  "Tennessee's  Partner,"  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Free- 
man's "A  Gala  Dress,"  Henry  James's  "The  Real  Thing," 
and  Stevenson's  "Will  o'  the  iNIiH"  were  developed  from  char- 
acters that  the  writers  had  known,  though  they  adapted  them 
freely  to  meet  their  artistic  needs. 

3.  "  You  may  take  a  certain  atmosphere  and  get  actions  and 
persons  to  realize  and  express  it."  Poe's  "The  Fall  of  the 
House  of  Usher,"  Stevenson's  "The  Merry  ]\Ien,"  and  Joseph 
Conrad's  "The  Lagoon"  may  have  been  suggested  by  this 
source. 

4.  You  may  take  a  theme  or  dominant  idea  and  choose  a 
situation,  necessary  characters,  and  an  appropriate  setting  to 
present  it.  Such  stories  as  Hawthorne's  "The  Minister's  Black 
Veil,"  "Ethan  Brand,"  "The  Birthmark,"  and  "Doctor  Hei- 
degger's Experiment,"  Kipling's  "Without  Benefit  of  Clergy," 
Guy  de  Maupassant's  "The  Piece  of  String,"  and  O.  Henry's 
"An  Unfinished  Story"  were  probably  written  to  present  a 
theme  effectively. 

On  the  basis  of  their  source  or  their  prevailing  element  we 
may  classify  stories  as  (i)  stories  of  plot,  (2)  stories  of  char- 
acter, (3)  stories  of  setting  or  atmosphere,  and  (4)  stories  of 
theme  or  idea. 


452  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I 

Study  by  means  of  the  questions  given  in  Appendix  A  two  short 
stories  that  your  teacher  may  assign. 

II 

Read  ten  or  more  short  stories  that  your  teacher  may  recommend,^ 
and  analyze  them  by  means  of  the  questions  given  in  Appendix  A. 

1  If  a  book  of  short  stories  is  desired  for  class  study,  any  of  the  collections 
mentioned  below  will  provide  useful  material: 

Short  Stories  Old  and  New.     Edited  by  C.  Alphonso  Smith.     Ginn  and 

Company. 
Short  Stories  for  High  Schools.     Edited  by  Rosa  M.  R.  Mikels.     Charles 

Scribner's  Sons. 
Modern  Short  Stories.    Edited  by  Frederick  H.  Law.   The  Century  Co. 
Types  of  the  Short  Story.    Edited  by  B.  A.  Heydrick.    Scott,  Foresman  and 

Company. 
A  Book  of  Short  Stories.    Edited  by  Stuart  P.  Sherman.    Henry  Holt  and 

Company. 
A  Book  of  Short  Stories.     Edited  by  Blanche  C.  Williams.     D.  Appleton 

and  Company. 
Short  Stories.    Edited  by  Leonard  B.  Moulton.   Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 
Americans  All.    Edited  by  B.  A.  Heydrick.    Harcourt,  Brace  and  Company. 
The  Short-Story.    Edited  by  W.  P.  Atkinson.    Allyn  and  Bacon. 
Short  Stories  of  America.   Edited  by  Robert  L.  Ramsay.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Company. 
Representative  Short  Stories.    Edited  by  Hart  and  Perry.    The  Macmillan 

Company. 
Modern  Short  Stories.    Edited  by  Margaret  E.  Ashmun.    The  Macmillan 

Company. 
The  Short-Story.    Edited  by  Brander  Matthews.   American  Book  Company. 
Elements  of  the  Short  Story.    Edited  by  Hale  and  Dawson.   Henry  Holt 

and  Company. 
Atlantic  Narratives,  First  and  Second  Series.    Edited  by  Charles  Swain 

Thomas.    Atlantic  Monthly  Press. 
Selected  Stories  from  Kipling.    Edited  by  William  Lyon  Phelps.  Doubleday, 

Page  and  Company. 
Selected  Stories  from  O.  Henry.    Edited  by  C.  Alphonso  Smith.    Double- 
day,  Page  and  Company. 


THE  SHORr  SIORV  453 

III 

Write  one  of  the  following  stories : 

1.  Read  carefully  Irving's  "Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,"  and  then 
tell  the  story  from  the  point  of  view  of  Brom  Bones,  who  has  devised  a 
scheme  to  get  even  with  his  rival,  Ichabod  Crane.  Alter  the  present 
story  as  you  see  fit  and  add  any  necessary  new  material. 

2.  Tell  the  story  contained  in  Hawthorne's  "The  Minister's  Black 
Veil"  from  the  point  of  view  of  Elizabeth.  Will  your  story  e.xtend 
beyond  the  death  of  the  minister  ?   Can  you  use  the  same  title  ? 

3.  Tell  the  story  contained  in  Guy  de  Maupassant's  "The  Piece  of 
String"  from  the  point  of  view  of  M.  Malandain,  the  harness-maker. 

4.  In  Guy  de  Maupassant's  "The  Necklace,"  suppose  that  Madame 
Forestier  lends  Mathilde  a  necklace,  which  she  has  an  accomplice  steal 
from  Mathilde  and  return  to  her,  though  she  makes  Mathilde  believe 
that  it  is  lost.  Invent  a  motive  for  Madame  Forestier's  action,  and  tell 
the  story  from  her  point  of  view. 

5.  In  Stockton's  "The  Lady,  or  the  Tiger?"  have  the  semibarbaric 
princess  tell  the  story  after  her  lover  has  opened  one  of  the  two  doors. 
Add  any  other  characters  that  you  may  need,  and  give  the  story  a 
definite,  logical  outcome. 


IV 

Work  out  a  plot  and  write  a  story  suggested  by  one  of  the 
following  situations : 

1.  A  boy  in  his  freshman  year  at  college  is  invited  by  his  wealthy 
aunt,  whom  he  has  never  seen,  to  spend  the  week-end  with  her  at  her 
home  in  a  neighboring  city.  A  conflicting  engagement  causes  him  to 
persuade  his  roommate  to  impersonate  him  and  go  in  his  stead.  Decide 
upon  an  appropriate  outcome.  Will  the  aunt  discover  the  deception? 
If  so,  how  ?   What  will  happen  to  the  roommate  ?  to  the  nephew  ? 

2.  A  tall  brick  chimney  stands  alone  in  a  large  inclosure  overgrown 
with  weeds.  The  house  was  burned  years  ago,  and  an  unsolved  mystery 
surrounds  the  utter  disappearance  of  the  occupants.  Why  was  the 
house  burned  ?  What  became  of  the  inmates  ?  Why  has  another  house 
not  been  erected  on  the  spot  ?  Can  you  solve  the  mystery  ? 


454  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  A  man  who  stammers  tries  to  warn  some  tourists  of  danger  ahead 
of  them.  They  laugh  at  his  comical  efforts  to  speak,  and  drive  on 
before  he  can  deliver  his  warning.   What  happens  ? 

4.  A  family  is  greatly  embarrassed  by  the  terms  of  a  legacy  be- 
queathed by  an  eccentric  relative.  What  is  the  legacy?  What  was 
the  relative's  motive  in  bequeathing  it  on  such  unusual  conditions  ? 
Will  the  family  forfeit  it,  or  will  they  find  a  way  out  of  the 
difficulty? 

5.  Two  burglars  meet  in  a  house  that  has  been  closed  for  the  sum- 
mer. Each  tries  to  make  the  other  believe  that  he  is  the  owner.  Will 
another  character  be  needed  ?  What  will  be  the  outcome  ? 

6.  A  situation,  plot,  character,  or  setting  suggested  by  your  teacher. 


V 

Devise  a  story  to  illustrate  one  of  the  following  themes : 

1.  Nothing  venture,  nothing  have. 

2.  Ambition  often  overleaps  itself. 

3.  Do  people  profit  by  experience  ? 

4.  Murder  will  out. 

5.  He  who  hesitates  is  lost. 

6.  Earth  gets  its  price  for  what  Earth  gives  us. 

7.  If  you  wish  a  secret  kept,  keep  it. 

8.  Sudden  wealth  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

9.  A  guilty  conscience  needs  no  accuser. 

10.  It  pays  to  advertise. 

11.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  no  one  good. 

12.  The  best-laid  schemes  o'  mice  an'  men 

Gang  aft  a-gley. 

VI 

Study  the  tv^^o  pictures  of  Flotsam  Castle  (facing  page  296).  The 
house  is  built  on  a  rocky  seacoast.  Who  are  the  people  in  the  lower 
picture  ?  What  could  happen  to  them  that  would  result  in  material 
for  a  short  story?  Would  other  characters  be  needed?  What 
would  be  the  outcome  of  the  action  of  the  story  ?  Write  the  story 
if  you  can. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  455 

VII 
Write  a  short  story  suggested  by  any  other  picture  in  this  book. 

308.  Summary.  A  short  story  is  a  brief,  complex  narrative 
composed  of  a  scries  of  causally  related  incidents  skillfully 
arranged  by  means  of  a  plot  to  present  effectively  a  struf^sle 
and  its  outcome.  In  length  a  short  story  may  range  from  2000 
to  20,000  words,  though  the  average  story  rarely  exceeds  7500 
words.  The  characters  are  few— seldom  more  than  six.  The 
time  covered  by  the  action  is  generally  short. 

The  five  essentials  of  a  short  story  are  (i)  singleness  of  im- 
pression, (2)  well-defined  plot,  (3)  a  dominant  incident,  (4)  a 
preeminent  character,  and  (5)  a  complication  and  its  resolution. 

The  plot  of  a  short  story  is  the  plan  by  means  of  which  the 
writer  arranges  the  incidents  in  the  most  effective  order  to  pro- 
duce the  single  impression  that  he  intends  the  story  to  make 
on  the  reader. 

The  persons  of  a  story  may  be  characterized  { i )  directly  by 
their  actions,  speech,  manner  of  speaking,  thoughts,  and  reac- 
tions when  associated  with  other  persons;  and  (2)  indirectly 
by  the  author's  description  of  them  and  of  their  environment, 
by  his  account  of  their  lives,  and  by  his  analysis  of  their  char- 
acter. Contrast  between  the  persons  of  a  story  is  often  an 
effective  means  of  characterization. 

Each  short  story  presents  the  development  and  the  solution 
of  a  plot  problem  which  comes  into  existence  as  the  result  of  a 
complicating  incident  that  initiates  the  struggle.  The  action 
which  precedes  the  climax  is  called  the  rising  action ;  that  which 
follows  the  climax  is  termed  the  falling  action.  The  final  out- 
come of  the  action  of  the  story  is  called  the  denouement. 

The  setting  of  a  short  story  should  be  limited,  if  possible,  to 
one  time  and  place.  Stories  that  emphasize  particular  place 
settings  and  environments  are  called  local  color  stories. 


456  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Short  stories  may  be  narrated  from  either  the  first-person  or 
the  third-person  point  of  view,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
story  and  the  judgment  of  the  writer. 

The  beginning  of  a  short  story  should  be  brief,  direct,  clear, 
and  attractive. 

A  short  story  should  begin  as  near  the  point  of  climax  as 
possible. 

A  short  story  may  begin  with  description,  exposition,  general 
narration,  vivid  narration  of  action,  or  dialogue.  Whatever  the 
beginning  may  be,  it  must  be  clear  and  must  interest  the  reader. 

The  title  of  a  short  story  should  be  brief  and  attractive. 

Four  valuable  aids  in  writing  the  short  story  are  ( i )  contrast 
in  characters  and  in  setting ;  (2  j  an  enveloping  action  to  furnish 
background  and  proper  perspective  for  the  immediate  action  of 
the  story;  (3)  suspense  as  a  means  of  arousing  the  reader's  in- 
terest; and  (4)  dialogue,  to  add  life  and  variety  to  the  story 
and  to  aid  in  characterization. 

On  the  basis  of  their  source  or  their  dominant  element  short 
stories  may  be  classified  as  (i)  stories  of  plot;  (2)  stories  of 
character;  (3)  stories  of  setting  or  atmosphere;  and  (4)  stories 
of  theme  or  idea. 


PART  FOUR 
CHAPTER  XXI 

A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR 

309.  Purpose  of  this  chapter.  The  present  chapter  is  not  in- 
tended to  take  the  place  of  a  textbook  in  Enf^lish  grammar.'  It 
contains  merely  a  brief  grammatical  review,  which  is  designed 
to  supplement  Chapter  V^III,  "The  Sentence  Grammatically 
Considered,"  and  Chapter  XI,  ''Special  Cautions  in  Grammar 
and  Sentence  Structure." 

I.    The  Parts  of  Speech 

310.  Definition  and  enumeration.  Words,  according  to  the 
office  they  perform  in  the  sentence,  are  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing eight  classes,  which  are  called  the  parts  of  speech :  nouns, 
pronouns,  adjectives,  adverbs,  verbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions, 
and  interjections. 

A.   Nouns 

311.  Kinds  of  nouns.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place, 
or  thing.  Nouns  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes:  proper 
nouns  and  common  nouns. 

I.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  a  particular  individual  of 
a  class. 

Marjorie,  Los  Angeles,  Sunday,  Easter,  France 

^Kittredge  and  Farley's  "Concise  English  Grammar"  or  "Advanced  Eng- 
lish Grammar,"  published  by  Ginn  and  Company,  may  be  used  if  a  more  de- 
tailed treatment  of  grammar  is  desired. 

457 


458  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  A  common  noun  is  a  name  applicable  alike  to  a  class  and 
to  each  individual  of  the  class. 

girl,  city,  day,  holiday,  country 

Common  nouns  include  three  special  classes  of  nouns :  col- 
lective nouns,  abstract  nouns,  and  verbal  nouns. 

a.  A  collective  noun  is  the  name  of  a  collection  or  group  of 
persons  or  things. 

family,  army,  school,  class,  audience,  flock,  herd 

b.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  an  attribute, 
or  a  general  idea. 

beauty,  neatness,  elegance,  eternity,  patience,  health 

c.  A  verbal  noun  is  the  name  of  an  action   (see  Verbals, 

P-  477)- 

312.  Properties  of  nouns.  The  three  properties  of  nouns  are 
gender,  number,  and  case.  The  inflection  of  a  noun  is  called 
its  declension. 

Gender.  Gender  is  the  quality  of  nouns  and  pronouns  which 
distinguishes  sex.  There  are  three  genders:  masculine,  femi- 
nine, and  neuter.  Nouns  such  as  child,  bird,  cat,  which  may  be 
used  to  denote  members  of  either  sex,  are  of  common  gender. 

The  gender  of  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  may  be  shown 
in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  the  use  of  different  words. 

husband  wife  salesman  saleswoman 

king  queen  manservant         maidservant 

2.  By  the  addition  of  an  ending  to  the  masculine,  sometimes 
to  the  feminine,  form. 

hero  heroine  bride  bridegroom 

actor  actress  widow  widower 


A  REVIEW  OF  C;  RAM  MAR  459 

Number.  Number  is  the  inllectional  change  of  a  substantive 
to  show  whether  it  indicates  one  person,  place,  or  thint;  or  more 
than  one.  A  noun  is  in  the  singular  number  when  it  denotes 
one  person,  place,  or  thing,  and  in  the  plural  when  it  denotes 
more  than  one. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  may  i)e  formed  in  the  following 
ways : 

1.  Most  nouns  form  their  plural  regularly  by  adding  s  or  es 
to  the  singular. 

boy,  boys         hero,  heroes         piano,  pianos         church,  churches 

2.  Many  nouns  form  their  plural  by  change  of  vowel  within 
the  word. 

man,  men         foot,  feet         goose,  geese  mouse,  mice 

3.  A  few  nouns  form  their  plural  in  en. 

ox,  oxen         child,  children 

4.  Most  nouns  ending  in  /  or  je  form  their  plural  by  changing 
the  j  io  V  and  adding  es  or  s. 

leaf,  leaves         wolf,  wolves         wife,  wives 

5.  Common  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 
change  the  y  to  /  and  add  es. 

sky,  skies        army,  armies        lady,  ladies 

Note.  If  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed 
regularly,  as  indicated  in  rule  i :  alley,  alleys ;  way,  ways ;  alloy,  alloys. 

6.  Many  nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  have  re- 
tained their  original  plural  form.,  though  several  have  acquired 
English  plurals. 

datum,  data        radius,  radii  crisis,  crises 

beau,  beaux  or  beaus  formula,  formulae  or  formulas 


46o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  Letters,  figures,  signs,  and  words  regarded  merely  as 
words  form  their  plural  by  adding  's. 

Your  u's  resemble  your  71's. 

Your  and's  and  but's  are  too  numerous. 

8.  Compound  nouns  usually  form  their  plural  by  pluralizing 
the  principal  word,  though  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

son-in-law,  sons-in-law     maidservant,  maidservants 

Note.  Such  words  as  cupful,  spoonful,  and  armful  are  regarded  as 
simple  nouns  and  add  the  s  at  the  end  of  the  word. 

9.  Proper  nouns  usually  form  their  plural  by  adding  s  or  es. 

The  Johns  and  Marj's  in  the  class  are  all  present. 
The  Misses  Brown  are  visiting  the  Thomases. 

Note.  Usage  favors  the  addition  of  the  plural  sign  to  the  title,  but 
the  addition  of  the  plural  sign  to  the  name  is  permissible  in  some  cases. 

the  Misses  Lathrop  (Reputable  usage) 
the  Miss  Lathrops  (Permissible  usage) 

10.  A  few  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 

deer,  sheep,  trout,  cannon 

Case.  Case  is  the  inflectional  change  of  a  substantive  to  in- 
dicate the  grammatical  relations  of  the  substantive  to  verbs, 
prepositions,  or  other  substantives.  There  are  three  cases  in 
the  English  language:  nominative,  possessive  (or  genitive),  and 
objective  (dative  or  accusative).  Nouns  have  the  same  form 
in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  In  nouns  the  possessive 
case  alone  is  inflected. 

The  following  rules  govern  the  formation  of  the  possessive 
case  of  nouns : 

I.  The  possessive  case  singular  of  most  nouns  is  formed  by 
adding  V. 

the  boy's  cap;  the  bird's  wing,  Burns's  poems,  Mr.  Fox's  last  story 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  461 

Note.  Nouns  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  s  or  an  j-sound  and 
not  accented  on  the  last  syllable  may  form  their  possessive  singular  by 
adding  's  or  by  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  alone. 

Dickens's  {or  Dickens')  novels,  conscience'  sake 

2.  The  possessive  case  plural  of  most  nouns  ending  in  s  is 
formed  by  placing  an  apostrophe  after  the  s. 

girls'  sweaters,  the  cooks'  union,  the  boys'  study  hall 

Note.  If  the  plural  of  a  noun  does  not  end  in  s,  the  possessive  plural 
is  formed  by  adding  '5. 

men's  gloves,  sheep's  wool,  children's  games 

3.  The  possessive  case  of  compound  nouns  is  formed  by  add- 
ing the  proper  possessive  sign  to  the  last  word  only. 

my  sister-in-law's  home,  the  Adjutant  General's  opinion 

Note.  The  possessive  case  of  a  phrase  or  of  a  combination  of  names 
is  formed  according  to  the  rule  just  stated. 

the  Queen  of  England's  crown,  Peter  the  Great's  reign 

If  several  nouns  modify  the  same  noun,  the  possessive  sign 
is  placed  after  the  last  noun  only,  if  the  possession  is  common. 
Mary,  John,  and  Blanche's  mother 

If  the  possession  is  individual,  the  possessive  sign  follows 

each  noun. 

Mar>''s.  John's,  and  Blanche's  mothers 

313.  Uses  of  nouns.  In  the  nominative,  possessive,  and  ob- 
jective case,  nouns  have  the  following  uses : 

•  Nominative  Case 

1.  The  wind  blew  the  dust.    (Subject  of  a  finite  verb) 

2.  You,  Helen,  may  recite  next.    (Nominative  of  direct  address) 

3.  Julia  is  my  cousin.    (Predicate  nominative) 

4.  Poor  ma?i !    A  fire !  a  fire  !    (Nominative  of  exclamation) 

5.  Jack  Groves,  our  pitcher,  is  ill.    (In  apposition) 


462  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Possessive  Case 
My  father's  health  is  poor.    (Modifier  of  a  substantive) 

Objective  Case 

1.  He  has  painted  his  house.    (Direct  object  of  a  verb) 

2.  I  gave  my  mother  a  present.    (Indirect  object) 

3.  We  elected  Dan  captain.    (Predicate  objective) 

4.  She  laughed  a  scornful  laugh.    (Cognate  object) 

5.  She  sat  in  a  chair  by  the  fire.    (Object  of  a  preposition) 

6.  We  walked  a  mile.    (Adverbial  objective) 

7.  I  met  my  friend  Noyes  in  the  elevator.    (In  apposition) 

8.  They  believed  the  stranger  to  be  a  detective.  (Subject  of  an 
infinitive) 

(See  Noun  Phrases,  section  io6;  Noun  clauses,  section  no.) 

314.  Directions  for  parsing  nouns.  In  parsing  a  noun  classify 
it  according  to  kind,  tell  its  gender,  number,  and  case,  and  state 
how  it  is  used  in  the  sentence. 

B.    Pronouns 

315.  Kinds  of  pronouns  and  their  properties.  A  pronoun  is 
a  word  that  is  used  instead  of  a  noun.  The  substantive  for 
which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun. 

Pronouns  are  of  four  kinds:  (i)  personal  pronouns,  (2)  ad- 
jective pronouns,  (3)  relative  pronouns,  and  (4)  interrogative 
pronouns. 

The  properties  of  pronouns  are  person,  number,  gender,  and 
case.  The  inflection  of  a  pronoun  is  called  its  declension. 

I.  Personal  pronouns.  A  personal  pronoun  is  one  which 
shows  by  its  form  whether  it  represents  the  person  speaking, 
the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person,  place,  or  thing  spoken  of. 
This  distinction  in  form  is  called  person.  Pronouns  are  said  to 
be  of  the  first,  the  second,  and  the  third  person. 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  463 

The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  (/)  is  dccUned  as  follows: 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative  I  Nominative  we 

Possessive    my  or  mine  Possessive     our  or  ours 

Objective      me  Objective      us 

The  pronoun  of  the  second  person  {you  or  thou)  is  declined 
as  follows : 

Singular  Plural 

Notni}iative  you  (thou)  Nominative  you  (ye) 

Possessive    your  or  yours  (thy  or  thine)  Possessive     your  or  yours 
Objective     you  (thee)  Objective     you  (ye) 

The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  (he,  she,  it)  is  declined  as 

follows : 

Singular  Plural 

Masculine,  Feminine, 
Masculine      Feminine      Neuter  ^^^  Neuter 

Nominative        he  she  it  they 

Possessive  his  her  or  hers        its  their  or  theirs 

Objective  him        her  it  them 

Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  and  ye  are  archaic  forms  used  chiefly 
in  poetry  and  in  solemn  discourse. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  myself,  yourself,  thy- 
self, himself,  herself,  itself,  ourselves,  yourselves,  and  them- 
selves. The  compound  indefinite  oneself  (or  one's  self)  may 
also  be  included. 

2.  Adjective  pronouns.  An  adjective  pronoun  is  one  that  may 
be  used  as  either  a  pronoun  or  an  adjective.  Adjective  pro- 
nouns include  (i)  demonstrative  pronouns  and  (2)  indefinite 
pronouns. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  this  and  that  (plural  these  and 
those)  direct  special  attention  to  particular  persons,  places,  or 
things.  They  may  be  used  either  as  adjectives  or  as  pronouns. 


464  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

As  Adjectives  As  Pronouns 

This  book  is  a  novel.  This  is  a  novel. 

I  saw  that  man  yesterday.  Who  is  that  coming  yonder? 

I  like  these  chocolates.  These  are  fine  autumn  days. 

Those  people  are  tourists.  You  will  like  those. 

Demonstrative  pronouns  are  inflected  for  number  only. 

The  indefinite  pronouns  direct  attention  to  persons,  places,  or 
things  less  clearly  or  definitely  than  do  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns. The  indefinite  pronouns  include  such  words  as  the  fol- 
lowing: any,  both,  each,  either,  neither,  every,  each  other, 
another,  one  another,  one,  none,  such,  some. 

None  and  one  (except  in  its  use  as  a  numeral  adjective)  are 
used  only  as  substantives,  and  every  is  used  only  as  an  adjec- 
tive. Each  other  and  one  another  are  compound  pronouns.  The 
remaining  indefinites  may  be  used  as  pronouns  or  as  adjectives. 

Such  words  as  all,  jew,  many,  several,  which  may  be  used 
either  as  pronouns  or  as  adjectives,  are  often  classed  as  in- 
definites. 

Such  words  as  anybody,  anything,  everybody,  everything, 
aught,  naught,  someivhat,  anyone,  each  one,  everyone,  'someone, 
no  one,  are  often  classed  as  indefinite  nouns. 

None  of  the  indefinites,  when  used  as  adjectives,  are  inflected. 

The  following  indefinites,  when  used  as  pronouns,  have  par- 
tial inflection :  one,  one's,  the  ones ;  another,  another's ;  other, 
other's,  others',  the  others;  each  other,  each  other's;  one  an- 
other, one  another's. 

3.  Relative  pronouns.  A  relative  pronoun  introduces  a  clause, 
and  not  only  refers  to  some  noun  or  pronoun  as  its  antecedent 
but  also  connects  the  clause  in  which  it  stands  with  that  ante- 
cedent. 

This  is  a  book  that  I  can  recommend. 

She  is  the  woman  whom  you  saw  this  morning. 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  465 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  that,  as,  what 
{z=that  which),  and  but  {=that  not).  Only  who  and  which 
have  inflectional  forms,  and  these  are  alike  for  the  singular  and 
the  plural. 

Nominative  who  which 

Possessive  whose  whose 

Objective  whom  which 

In  that  which,  the  equivalent  of  the  relative  pronoun  what, 
that  is  regarded  as  the  antecedent  and  which  is  the  relative. 
What  should  always  be  resolved  into  its  component  parts  be- 
fore it  is  parsed. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  made  by  adding  the 
words  ever  and  soever  to  the  simple  relatives  ivho,  which,  and 
what  and  their  inflected  forms. 

4.  Interrogative  pronouns.  The  interrogative  pronouns  (who. 
which,  and  what)  are  used  in  asking  questions. 

Who  and  which  the  interrogatives  have  the  same  inflection 
as  who  and  which  the  relatives.  What  has  no  inflection. 

Who  is  either  masculine  or  feminine.  Which  and  what  are  of 
all  three  genders. 

Which  and  what  are  frequently  used  as  interrogative  adjec- 
tives. 

Which  seat  do  you  prefer? 
What  play  did  you  see  last  night  ? 

What  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  to  introduce  an  exclama- 
tory sentence.  It  may  also  serve  as  an  interjection. 

What  a  fine  day  this  is! 

What !  Has  the  man  lost  his  reason  ? 

316.  Uses  of  pronouns.  In  general,  pronouns  may  be  used  in 
all  the  constructions  in  which  nouns  are  used,  except  as  a  cog- 
nate object,  a  predicate  objective,  and  an  adverbial  objective. 


466  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  following  uses  of  personal  pronouns  should  be  noted : 
The  possessive  forms  my,  our,  your,  her,  and  their  are  used 
as  adjectives  followed  by  a  noun.  The  forms  ours,  yours,  hers, 
and  theirs  are  used  as  possessive  pronouns  and  cannot  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  noun.  His  may  be  used  either  as  an  adjective  or  as 
a  pronoun. 

//  often  stands  in  the  place  of  the  subject  of  a  verb  which  has 
for  its  real  subject  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  coming  later  in  the 
sentence.  In  this  use  it  is  called  an  expletive. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  his  conduct  (To  understand  his  conduct 
is  difficult). 

//  may  also  be  used  impersonally,  without  an  antecedent. 

It  rains.  It  is  ten  o'clock. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  may  be  used  ( i )  emphati- 
cally and  (2)  reflexively. 

We  ourselves  heard  him  speak.    (Emphatically) 
He  hurt  himself.    (Reflexively) 

The  uses  of  indefinite,  relative,  and  interrogative  pronouns 
have  been  adequately  explained  in  section  315. 

317.  Directions  for  parsing  pronouns.  To  parse  a  pronoun 
classify  it  according  to  kind,  point  out  its  antecedent  if  it  is  a 
personal  or  a  relative  pronoun,  state  the  person,  number,  and 
gender,  and  tell  how  the  pronoun  is  used  in  the  sentence. 

C.    Adjectives 

318.  Kinds  of  adjectives.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to 
modify  a  substantive,  which  it  describes  or  limits. 

Adjectives  are  of  two  principal  kinds:  (i)  descriptive  adjec- 
tives and  (2)  limiting  adjectives. 

I.  Descriptive  adjectives.  Descriptive  adjectives,  which  con- 
stitute much  the  larger  class,  are  either  proper  or  common. 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  467 

A  proper  adjective  may  be  either  a  proper  noun  used  as  an 
adjective  or  an  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  noun. 

an  Edison  phonograph,  an  English  poet,  the  American  eagle 

All  descriptive  adjectives  that  are  not  proper  adjectives  are 
classed  as  common. 

a  bright  day,  a  purple  flower,  a  dusty  road 

Most  participles  may  be  used  as  common  adjectives, 
a  deserted  house,  a  moving  train,  the  rising  sun 

2.  Limiting  adjectives.  Limitinj,'  adjectives  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes :  (i)  pronominal  adjectives,  (2)  numerals,  and 
(3)  articles. 

a.  Pronominal  adjectives  are  pronouns  used  as  adjectives. 
They  include  the  following  : 

(i)  Possessives;  as,  my,  your,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our,  their. 

(2)  Demonstratives;  as,  this,  these,  that,  those. 

(3)  Indefinites;  as,  any,  every,  each,  some,  such. 

(4)  Relatives;  as,  which,  whose,  what. 

(5)  Interrogatives;  as,  which,  whose,  what. 

b.  An  adjective  designating  number  is  called  a  numeral 
adjective.  Numeral  adjectives  are  of  two  classes : 

(i)  Cardinal  numerals  {one,  tivo,  three,  etc.)  answer  the 
question  How  many? 

(2)  Ordinal  numerals  {first,  second,  third,  etc.)  indicate 
order  or  position  in  a  series. 

c.  The  articles  are  a  (or  an)  and  the.  An  \s  generally  used 
before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  silent  h,  and  a  is  used 
before  other  words. 

I  have  eaten  an  apple.    He  is  an  honorable  man.    He  is  a  doctor. 

319.  Comparison  of  adjectives.  The  inflection  of  an  adjective 
is  called  its  comparison.  There  are  three  degrees  of  compari- 
son ;  namely,  the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 


468 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


The  positive  degree  merely  names  the  quality  without  ex- 
pressing or  implying  any  comparison. 

My  brother  is  tall. 

The  comparative  degree  indicates  that  the  quality  named 
exists  in  the  object  described  in  a  higher  degree  than  it  does  in 
some  other  object. 

My  brother  is  taller  than  my  father. 

The  superlative  degree  indicates  that  the  quality  named  is 
possessed  in  the  highest  degree  by  the  object  described. 

My  brother  is  the  tallest  member  of  my  family. 

Adjectives  are  compared  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  Many  adjectives  are  compared  by  adding  to  the  positive 
degree  the  terminations  er  to  form  the  comparative  and  est  to 
form  the  superlative. 

cold  colder  coldest         happy  happier  happiest 

2.  Many  other  adjectives  are  compared  by  prefixing  the  ad- 
verbs more  and  most  to  the  positive  degree. 

gracious  more  gracious  most  gracious 

3.  Several  adjectives  are  irregularly  compared. 
Positive 


good,  well 

bad,  evil,  ill 

little 

much,  many 

near,  nigh 

old 

far 


late 


Comparative 

better 
worse 

less 

more 

nearer 

older,  elder 

farther 

further 

later,  latter 


Superlative 

best 
worst 
least 
most 

nearest,  next 
oldest,  eldest 
farthest 
furthest 
latest,  last 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  469 

4.  A  few  superlatives  end  in  most.  Often  the  positive  or  the 
comparative  degree  is  lacking. 

hind  hinder  hindmost 

top  topmost 

nether  nethermost 

In  general,  only  descriptive  adjectives  have  comparison. 
(For  the  use  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  of 
adjectives  see  section  151.) 

320.  Uses  of  adjectives.  According  to  their  position  in  the 
sentence,  adjectives  may  be  classified  as  attributive,  appositive, 
and  predicate  adjectives. 

An  attributive  adjective  uniformly  precedes  its  noun. 
The  blind  beggar  had  a  white  beard. 

An  appositive  adjective  follows  its  noun  and,  like  an  apposi- 
tive noun,  is  usually  set  off  by  commas. 

A  beggar,  blind  and  old,  sat  on  the  curb. 

A  predicate  adjective  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predicate 
verb  and  modifies  the  subject  (see  section  152). 

The  beggar  was  blind  and  old. 

An  adjective  standing  in  the  predicate  and  completing  the 
meaning  of  verbs  of  making,  believing,  calling,  and  thinking 
serves  as  a  predicate  objective  (see  section  152). 

I  think  him  rude.   I  call  his  conduct  insulting. 

(See  Adjective  Phrases,  section  106 ;  Adjective  clauses,  sec- 
tion III.) 

321.  Directions  for  parsing  adjectives.  To  parse  an  adjective, 
state  whether  it  is  descriptive  or  limiting,  tell  its  degree  of 
comparison,  point  out  the  substantive  to  which  it  belongs,  and 
explain  whether  it  modifies  the  substantive  attributively,  ap- 
positively,  or  predicatively. 


470  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

D.  Adverbs 

322.  Kinds  of  adverbs.  An  adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Adverbs  may  be  classified  as  (i)  simple  adverbs,  (2)  inter- 
rogative adverbs,  and  (3)  relative,  or  conjunctive,  adverbs. 

1.  Simple  adverbs.  According  to  its  meaning,  a  simple  adverb 
belongs  to  one  of  the  following  classes : 

a.  Adverbs  of  place ;  as,  kere,  there,  forward,  thence,  thither. 

b.  Adverbs  of  time ;  as,  then,  now,  soon,  first,  already. 

c.  Adverbs  of  manner ;  as,  quickly,  abruptly,  eagerly,  indus- 
triously. 

d.  Adverbs  of  degree ;  as,  much,  hardly,  somewhat,  entirely. 

A  number  of  adverbs  have  the  same  form  as  adjectives. 
He  came  early.     We  have  traveled  jar. 

There  is  often  used  unemphatically  to  introduce  a  sentence 
in  which  the  subject  follows  the  verb.  In  this  use  it  is  called  an 
expletive. 

There  were  twenty  people  in  the  yacht. 

The  words  yes  and  no  are  classified  as  adverbs. 

2.  Interrogative  adverbs.  An  interrogative  adverb  is  used  to 
introduce  a  question.  The  six  interrogative  adverbs  are  how, 
when,  where,  whence,  why,  whither. 

Whe?i  did  you  arrive?    How  long  shall  you  stay? 

3.  Relative,  or  conjunctive,  adverbs.  Relative,  or  conjunctive, 
adverbs  are  used  to  introduce  dependent  clauses.  The  chief 
relative  adverbs  are  how,  when,  where,  whence,  whither,  while, 
why,  as,  ajter,  until,  till,  bejore,  since,  whenever,  wherever. 

1  know  where  he  has  gone.    (Noun  clause) 

The  reason  why  he  left  is  not  known.    (Adjective  clause) 

He  greeted  me  as  I  entered  the  room.    (Adverbial  clause) 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  471 

323.  Comparison  of  adverbs.  I  ho  iiillfction  of  an  adverb  is 
called  its  comparison.  Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  have  three  de- 
grees of  comparison  ;  namely,  the  positive,  the  comparative,  and 
the  superlative.    Adverbs  are  compared  in  the  followinj^  ways: 

1.  Most  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  more  and  most. 

slowly  more  slowly  most  slowly 

2.  Several  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  the  endings 

er  and  est. 

fast  faster  fastest         early  earlier  earliest 

3.  A  number  of  adverbs  are  irregularly  compared. 
Positive  Comparative  Superlative 


far,  forth 

farther,  further 

farthest,  furthest 

ill,  badly 

worse 

worst 

much 

more 

most 

little 

less 

least 

well 

better 

best 

(See  Adverbial  Phrases,  section  106;  Adverbial  clauses,  sec- 
tion 112.  See  also  section  152.) 

324.  Directions  for  parsing  adverbs.  To  parse  an  adverb, 
state  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  tell  whether  it  is  an  adverb 
of  place,  time,  manner,  or  degree,  and  point  out  the  verb,  adjec- 
tive, or  adverb  that  it  modifies.  If  it  is  a  relative,  or  conjunc- 
tive, adverb,  state  what  clauses  it  connects. 

E.  Verbs 

325.  Kinds  of  verbs.  A  verb  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words 
that  asserts  action,  being,  or  state. 

The  rain  jails.     God  is.     The  house  stands  vacant. 
A  group  of  words  that  is  used  as  a  verb  is  called  a  verb  phrase. 
You  may  go.     They  have  gone.     We  should  have  been  told. 


472  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Certain  verbs,  when  they  help  to  form  verb  phrases,  are 
called  auxiliary  verbs.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  be  (in  its  vari- 
ous forms),  can,  could,  do,  did,  have,  had,  may,  might,  must, 
shall,  should,  will,  would. 

The  verb  with  which  an  auxiliary  is  used  to  form  a  verb 
phrase  is  called  the  main  or  principal  verb. 

Verbs  are  classified  as  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 

1.  Transitive  verbs.  Verbs  that  are  followed  by  a  substan- 
tive designating  the  receiver  of  an  action  or  the  product  of  the 
action  are  called  transitive. 

A  substantive  that  denotes  the  receiver  or  the  product  of  the 
action  and  at  the  same  time  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
is  called  the  direct  object. 

The  player  struck  the  ball.     Helen  7nade  a  dress. 

A  substantive  that  indicates  the  person  for  whom  some  action 
is  performed  is  called  the  indirect  object. 

We  gave  the  beggar  alms.     She  painted  me  a  picture. 

Certain  verbs  of  making,  naming,  choosing,  electing,  and  ap- 
pointing often  take,  in  addition  to  the  direct  object,  a  second 
object.  A  substantive  thus  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
verb,  and  to  denote  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  direct  ob- 
ject, is  called  a  predicate  objective,  or  an  adjunct  accusative. 
We  chose  John  president.     They  named  the  child  Ruth. 

2.  Intransitive  verbs.  All  verbs  that  are  not  transitive  are 
called  intransitive.  An  intransitive  verb  is  not  followed  by  a 
substantive  denoting  the  receiver  of  the  action  or  the  product  of 
the  action,  though  it  often  requires  a  word  or  a  group  of  words 
to  complete  its  meaning. 

The  judge  rose.     The  snow  jails.     She  is  my  sister. 
Many  transitive  verbs  may  be  used  intransitively. 

The  clock  struck.     Helen  recited.     The  wind  blows. 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  473 

A  verb  that  merely  connects,  or  links,  its  subject  with  a  sub- 
stantive or  an  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  called  a  copulative 
(or  linking)  verb.  The  substantive  or  adjective  thus  used  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and  to  define  or  describe  the 
subject  is  a  predicate  nominative  or  a  predicate  adjective. 
That  man  is  our  mayor.      The  sailor  became  a  pirate. 

The  principal  copulative  (or  linking)  verbs  are  be  (in  its 
various  forms),  seem,  become,  appear,  prove,  look,  taste,  sound, 
smell,  feel,  grow,  turn,  stand,  remain. 

326.  Conjugation  of  verbs.  The  inflection  of  a  verb  is  called 
its  conjugation.  Verbs  are  conjugated  to  show  differences  in 
person,  number,  tense,  and  mood.  By  means  of  verb  phrases 
distinction  of  voice  is  indicated. 

Person  and  number.  Verbs,  like  substantives,  have  inflec- 
tional changes  to  show  w^hether  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  the  person  spoken  of  is  meant. 

Furthermore,  verbs,  like  substantives,  have  inflectional 
changes  to  indicate  whether  the  speaker  or  writer  means  to 
designate  one  person,  place,  or  thing  or  more  than  one. 

The  small  number  of  inflectional  forms  by  means  of  which 
verbs  may  indicate  person  and  number  makes  it  necessary,  as  a 
rule,  to  determine  their  person  and  number  by  noting  the  person 
and  number  of  the  subject. 

I  come.   You  come.  We  come.   They  come. 

Tense.  The  inflectional  change  of  a  verb  to  indicate  present, 
past,  or  future  time  is  called  tense.  The  six  tenses  are  classified 
as  (i)  primary  tenses  and  (2)  secondary  tenses. 

I.  Primary  tenses.  There  are  in  English  three  primary 
tenses ;  namely,  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  future. 

a.  The  present  tense  represents  an  action  that  occurs,  or  a 
condition  that  exists,  at  the  present  time. 

I  go.     She  sings.     He  turns  pale. 


474  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

b.  The  past  tense  represents  an  action  that  occurred,  or  a 
condition  that  existed,  at  some  past  time. 

I  went.    She  sang.    He  turned  pale. 

c.  The  future  tense  represents  an  action  that  will  occur,  or  a 
condition  that  will  exist,  at  some  future  time.  The  auxiliaries 
of  the  future  tense  are  shall  and  will. 

I  shall  go.     She  will  sing.     He  will  turn  pale. 

(For  an  explanation  of  the  uses,  of  shall  and  will  see  section 

156.) 

2.  Secondary  tenses.  There  are  in  English  three  secondary 
tenses;  namely,  the  perfect  (or  present  perfect),  the  past  per- 
fect (or  pluperfect),  and  the  future  perfect.  These  are  some- 
times called  the  complete  or  compound  tenses. 

a.  The  perfect  tense  represents  an  action  that  is  complete, 
or  a  condition  that  has  already  come  to  pass,  at  the  time  of 
speaking.  The  auxiliary  of  the  perfect  tense  is  have  in  the 
present  tense. 

I  have  gone.     She  has  sung.     He  has  turned  pale. 

b.  The  past-perfect  tense  represents  an  action  that  was  com- 
pleted, or  a  condition  that  had  come  to  pass,  at  some  point  in 
past  time.  The  auxiliary  of  the  past-perfect  tense  is  have  in  the 
past  tense. 

I  had  gone.     She  had  sung.     He  had  turned  pale. 

c.  The  future- per  feet  tense  represents  an  action  that  will  be 
completed,  or  a  condition  that  will  have  come  to  pass,  at  some 
point  in  future  time.  It  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  future  tense 
of  have  {shall  have,  etc.)  to  the  past  participle. 

I  shall  have  gone.     She  will  have  sung.     He  will  have  turned  pale. 

Other  verb  phrases.  In  addition  to  the  verb  phrases  formed 
in  the  future,  the  perfect,  the  past-perfect,  and  the  future- 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  475 

perfect  tenses,  there  are  other  verb  phrases  that  are  made  by 
using  certain  auxiliary  verbs  with  the  infinitives  or  participles  of 
the  main  verb. 

1.  Conditional  verb  phrases  are  formed  by  the  use  of  should 
and  would  as  auxiliaries. 

I  should  accompany  you  if  I  had  time. 

2.  Potential  verb  phrases  are  formed  by  the  use  of  may  and 
might,  can  and  could,  as  auxiliaries. 

I  may  leave  soon.    He  can  speak  French.    They  mii;,ht  return. 

3.  Obligative  verb  phrases  are  formed  by  the  use  of  must 
and  ought  as  auxiliaries. 

We  must  work.     You  ought  to  have  listened  closely. 

4.  Emphatic  verb  phrases  are  formed  in  the  present  tense 
and  the  past  tense  by  the  use  of  do  and  did  as  auxiliaries. 

I  do  know  it  is  true.     He  did  eat. 

Progressive  jorms.  In  addition  to  the  common  forms  already 
enumerated,  progressive  forms  for  all  tenses  of  the  verb  in  the 
active  voice  and  for  the  present  and  past  tenses  in  the  passive 
voice  may  be  made  by  using  as  auxiliaries  the  various  forms  of 
the  verb  be  with  the  present  participle. 

I  am  giving  I  have  been  giving 

I  was  giving  I  had  been  giving 

I  shall  be  giving  I  shall  have  been  giving 

I  am  being  give?i  I  was  being  given 

Mood.  Mood  is  the  inflectional  change  of  a  verb  to  indicate 
the  manner  in  which  an  action  or  a  state  is  expressed.  There  are 
three  principal  moods ;  namel}',  the  indicative,  the  imperative, 
and  the  subjunctive. 

I.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  chiefly  in  statements  of  fact 
and  in  questions. 

I  enjoy  traveling.     Have  you  jound  your  book  ? 


476  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  The  imperative  mood  is  used  in  commands  and  requests. 

Come  home  at  nine  o'clock.     Help  us  win  the  fight. 

3.  The  subjunctive  mood,  though  many  of  its  functions  have 
been  usurped  by  the  indicative  mood,  is  still  used  in  English  in 
the  following  constructions : 

a.  To  express  a  wish. 

The  Lord  prosper  your  undertaking. 

b.  To  express  a  condition. 

If  he  be  at  home,  give  him  this  letter. 
If  I  were  at  home,  I  should  be  happy. 

c.  To  express  concession  not  as  a  fact  but  as  supposition. 

Though  he  implore  me,  yet  will  I  refuse  him. 

d.  To  express  what  would  be  or  would  have  been  the  case 
instead  of  v/hat  is  or  was  the  case. 

It  were  better  not  to  yield  the  point. 

You  had  been  successful  had  you  studied  harder. 

e.  To  express  an  exhortation. 

"Now  tread  we  a  measure,"  said  young  Lochinvar. 
Somebody  lend  a  hand. 

/.  To  express  a  command  in  the  third  person. 

Everybody  report  at  the  office  before  five  o'clock. 

(For  the  various  mood  forms  see  the  synopses  given  on 
pages  478-483.) 

Voice.  Voice  is  that  distinction  in  verbs  which  shows  whether 
the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon.  There  are  two  voices ;  namely, 
the  active  and  the  passive.  The  active  voice  designates  the  sub- 
ject as  acting,  whereas  the  passive  voice  indicates  that  the  sub- 
ject is  acted  upon. 

The  pitcher  threw  the  ball.    (Active  voice) 

The  ball  was  thrown  by  the  pitcher.    (Passive  voice) 


"C)  Frascr 


THE  END  OF   THE  TRAIL 


A  REVIEW  or  GRAMMAR  477 

The  verb  phrases  that  constitute  the  passive  voice  are  made 
by  usint,'  various  forms  of  the  verb  be  with  the  past  (passive) 
participle.  (For  the  various  passive  verl)  phrases  see  the  syn- 
opses given  on  pages  482-483.) 

Verbals.  Verbals  are  forms  of  the  verb  that  do  not  have  in- 
flection for  person  and  number.  They  include  infmitives,  par- 
ticiples, and  gerunds  (or  verbal  nouns  in  tug). 

The  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  may  perform,  in 
addition  to  its  office  as  a  verb,  the  function  of  a  noun. 

To  deceive  him  was  not  my  intention. 

The  infinitive  has  two  tenses ;  namely,  the  present  and  the 

perfect. 

to  deceive,  to  have  deceived    (Active  voice) 

to  be  deceived,  to  have  been  deceived    (Passive  voice) 

The  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  which  may  perform,  in 
addition  to  its  office  as  a  verb,  the  function  of  an  adjective. 

The  rising  sun  dispelled  the  fog.    Overpowered,  he  yielded. 

There  are  three  participles;  namely,  the  present,  the  past, 
and  the  perfect. 

deceiving,  ,  having  deceived  ( Active  voice) 

being  deceived,  deceived,  having  been  deceived  (Passive  voice) 

The  gerund  is  a  verbal  noun  in  ing.  Like  a  verb,  it  may  take 
an  object  or  be  modified  by  an  adverb.  It  may  also  serve  as  a 
noun  and  be  modified  by  an  adjective. 

Growing  tulips  is  his  avocation.  (Followed  by  a  direct  object) 
Driving  recklessly  cost  him  his  life.  (Modified  by  an  adverb) 
Reckless  driving  cost  him  his  life.    (Modified  by  an  adjective) 

(For  an  explanation  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  and  for 
a  list  of  verbs  with  their  principal  parts  see  section  154.) 


478  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Regular  and  irregular  conjugations.  Verbs  are  divided  into 
two  great  classes  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  form 
their  past  tense  and  past  participle. 

If  a  verb  forms  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding 
ed,  d,  or  t  to  the  present,  it  is  called  a  regular  verb,  because  it 
belongs  to  the  regular  conjugation  (also  called  the  new  or  weak 
conjugation). 

play,  played,  played ;  trade,  traded,  traded  ;  mean,  meant,  meant 

If  a  verb  forms  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  in  any  other 
way,  it  is  called  an  irregular  verb,  because  it  belongs  to  the  irreg- 
ular conjugation  (also  called  the  old  or  strong  conjugation), 

run,  ran,  run ;  speak,  spoke,  spoken ;  swim,  swam,  swum 

Below  are  given  synopses  of  the  verbs  be,  have,  and  give, 
illustrating  the  conjugation  of  irregular  verbs.  From  these  the 
conjugation  of  regular  verbs  will  be  apparent. 

I.  IRREGULAR  CONJUGATION 

Synopses  of  the  Verbs  Be  and  Have 

Principal  Parts  :  he,  was,  been ;  have,  had,  had 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

I  am  We  are  I  have  We  have 

Thou  art  You  are  Thou  hast  You  have 

He  is  They  are  He  has  They  have 

Past  Tense 

I  was  We  were  I  had  We  had 

Thou  wast  You  were  Thou  hadst  You  had 

He  was  They  were  He  had  They  had 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR 


479 


Singular 

I  shall  be 
Thou  wilt  be 
He  will  be 


I  have  been,  etc. 


I  had  been,  etc. 


Future  Tense 
Plural 


We  shall  be 
Vou  will  be 
They  will  be 


Singular 

1  shall  have 
Thou  wilt  have 
He  will  have 


Perfect  Tense 

I  have  had.  etc. 

Past-Perfect  Tense 

I  had  had.  etc. 


Plural 

We  shall  have 
Vou  will  have 
They  will  have 


Future-Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  been,  etc.  I  shall  have  had,  etc. 


subjuxctivi-:  mood 
Present  Tense 


(If)  I  be 
(If)  thou  be 
(If)  he  be 


(If)  we  be 
(If)  you  be 
(If)  they  be 


(If)  I  have 
(If)  thou  have 
(If)  he  have 


(If)  we  have 
(If)  you  have 
(If)  they  have 


Past  Tense 


(If)  I  were  (If)  we  were        (If)  I  had  (If)  we  had 

(If)  thou  wert     (If)  you  were       (If)  thou  had        (If)  you  had 
(If)  he  were        (If)  they  were     (If)  he  had  (If)  they  had 

Perfect  Tense 
(If)  I  have  been.  etc.  (If)  I  have  had,  etc. 

Past-Perfect  Tense 
(If)  I  had  been,  etc.  (If)  I  had  had.  etc. 


48o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 
be  (thou,  you,  or  ye)  have  (thou,  you,  or  ye) 


PRESENT  INFINITIVE 

to  be 

to  have 

PERFECT  INFINITIVE 

to  have  been 

to  have  had 

GERUND 

being 

having 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

being 

having 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

been 

had 

PERFECT  PARTICIPLE 

having  been 

having  had 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb  Give 
Principal  Parts  :   give,  gave,  given 

ACTIVE  VOICE 
Common  Form  Progressive  Form 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 
Present  Tense 
I  give,  etc.  I  am  giving,  etc. 


f 


A  REVIEW  OF  (GRAMMAR  481 

Past  Tense 
I  gave,  etc.  I  was  givinc,  etc. 

Future  Tense 
I  shall  give,  etc.  I  shall  be  giving,  etc. 

Perfect  Tense 
I  have  given,  etc.  I  have  been  giving,  etc. 

Past-Perfect  Tense 
I  had  given,  etc.  I  had  been  giving,  etc. 

Future-Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  given,  etc.  I  shall  have  been  giving,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 
(If)  I  give,  etc.  (If)  I  be  giving,  etc. 

Past  Tense 
(If)  I  gave,  etc.  (If)  I  were  giving,  etc. 

Perfect  Tense 
(If)  I  have  given,  etc.  ( If)  I  have  been  giving,  etc. 

Past-Perfect  Tense 
(If)  I  had  given,  etc.  (If)  I  had  been  giving,  etc. 

IMPER.ATIVE  MOOD 
give  be  giving 


482 


to  give 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

PRESENT  INFINITIVE 

to  be  giving 


PERFECT  INFINITIVE 

to  have  given 

to  have  been  giving 

GERUND 

giving 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 

giving 

PERFECT  PARTICIPLE 

having  given 

having  been  giving 

I  am  given,  etc. 

I  was  given,  etc. 

I  shall  be  given,  etc. 
I  have  been  given,  etc. 

I  had  been  given,  etc. 


PASSIVE  VOICE 

indicative  mood 

Present  Tense 

I  am  being  given,  etc. 

Past  Tense 

I  was  being  given,  etc. 


Future  Tense 


Perfect  Tense 


Past-Perfect  Tense 


Future-Perfect  Tense 
I  shall  have  been  given,  etc. 


A  REVIEW    OF  (iRAMMAR  483 

suijjlnctivi-:  mood 

Present  Tense  Perfect  Tense 

(If)  I  be  given,  etc.  (li)  I  have  been  given,  etc. 

Past  Tense  Past-Perfect  Tense 

(If)  I  were  given,  etc.  (If)  I  had  been  given,  etc. 

Imperative  Mood:  be  given. 

Infinitive  :  Present,  to  be  given ;  Perfect,  to  have  been  given. 
Participles  :  Present,  being  given  ;  Past,  given  ;  Perfect,  having  been 
given. 

327.  Directions  for  parsing  verbs.  To  parse  a  verb  tell  its 
kind  (transitive  or  intransitive),  name  its  conjugation  (regular 
or  irregular),  give  its  principal  parts,  state  its  person,  number, 
tense,  mood,  and  voice,  and  explain  its  agreement  with  the 
subject. 

To  parse  an  infinitive,  a  participle,  or  a  gerund  tell  from  what 
verb  it  comes,  state  its  voice  and  tense,  and  explain  how  it  is 
used  in  the  sentence. 

F.  Prepositions 

328.  Kinds  of  prepositions.  A  preposition  is  a  word  that  is 
placed  before  a  substantive  to  show  its  relation  to  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence.  The  substantive  before  which  the  prepo- 
sition is  placed  is  called  its  object  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

A  prepositional  phrase  consists  of  a  preposition  and  its  ob- 
ject. Such  a  phrase  may  be  used  either  as  an  adjective  or  as 
an  adverb.    (See  section  106.) 

Prepositions,  which  include  a  small  group  of  about  a  hundred 
words,  may  be  classified  as  (i)  simple  and  (2)  compound. 

I.  Simple  prepositions.  The  principal  simple  prepositions 
are  at,  by,  but,  in,  of,  for,  on,  to.  up,  with,  down,  near,  off,  since, 
from,  ere,  over,  under,  through,  till,  after. 


484  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Compound  prepositions.  Among  the  more  common  com- 
pound, or  derived,  prepositions  are  above,  beyond,  into,  upon, 
about,  across,  against,  around,  bejore,  below,  beneath,  among, 
between,  during,  beside,  outside,  inside,  toward,  towards,  until, 
without,  within,  concerning,  regarding,  notwithstanding. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  phrases,  such  as  in  spite  of,  with 
respect  to,  out  of,  as  to,  for  the  sake  of,  instead  of,  according  to, 
in  addition  to,  apart  from,  by  means  of,  which  are  usually 
classified  as  compound  prepositions. 

Prepositions  have  no  inflection. 

329.  Directions  for  parsing  prepositions.  To  parse  a  prepo- 
sition, state  its  kind,  tell  what  word  it  governs,  and  explain 
the  relation  that  it  shows  between  its  object  and  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence. 


G.  Conjunctions 

330.  Kinds  of  conjunctions.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  that  con- 
nects words  or  groups  of  words.  Conjunctions  are  classified  as 
(i)  coordinate  and  (2)  subordinate. 

1.  Coordinate  conjunctions.  A  coordinate  conjunction  con- 
nects words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  equal  rank.  The  principal 
coordinate  conjunctions  are  and,  but,  for,  or,  nor,  then,  yet, 
still,  however,  moreover,  therefore,  nevertheless,  notwithstand- 
ing, either  .  .  .  or,  neither  .  .  .  nor,  both  .  .  .  and,  not  only 
.  .  .  but  also. 

2.  Subordinate  conjunctions.  A  subordinate  conjunction 
connects  a  subordinate,  or  dependent,  clause  with  the  clause  on 
which  it  depends.  The  principal  subordinating  conjunctions 
are  as,  as  if,  because,  although,  though,  if,  than,  lest,  since 
(=  because),  unless,  that,  whereas,  whether,  but  that,  in  order 
that,  so  that,  provided  that,  in  case  that,  even  if,  as  though. 

(For  relative,  or  conjunctive,  adverbs  see  section  322.) 


A  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR  485 

Conjunctions  that  are  used  in  pairs  are  called  correlative 
conjunctions.  The  following  correlative  conjunctions  are  co- 
ordinate: both  .  .  ,  and,  cither  .  .  .  or,  neither  .  .  .  nor,  not 
only  .  .  .  but  also.  The  following  conjunctions  are  subordi- 
nate: although  .  .  .  still,  though  .  .  .  yet,  if  .  .  .  then,  since 
.  .  .  therefore. 

Conjunctions  have  no  inflection. 

331.  Directions  for  parsing  conjunctions.  To  parse  a  con- 
junction, state  its  class  (coordinate  or  subordinate)  and  point 
out  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  it  connects.  If  it  is  a 
conjunctive  adverb,  explain  its  use  in  the  clause  which  it 
introduces. 

H.  Interjections 

332.  Nature  and  use  of  interjections.  An  interjection  is  a 
word  or  exclamatory  sound  used  to  express  surprise,  pleasure, 
sorrow,  anger,  pain,  or  some  other  emotion  or  feeling. 

oh,  ah,  alas,  hush,  fie,  aha.  hist,  pshaw,  bravo 

Interjections,  since  they  usually  have  no  grammatical  rela- 
tion to  the  sentences  in  which  they  stand,  are  considered  as 
independent  elements.  In  parsing  an  interjection,  therefore,  it 
is  sufficient  to  point  it  out  and  tell  what  feeling  or  emotion  it 
expresses. 

II.    Sentence  Analysis 

333.  Directions  for  analyzing  sentences.  The  analysis  of  a 
sentence  consists  in  separating  it  into  its  component  parts  and 
in  explaining  the  construction  of  each  of  these  parts. 

The  steps  in  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  are  as  follows : 

1.  Tell  whether  the  sentence  is  simple,  compound,  complex, 
or  compound-complex. 

2.  Unless  the  sentence  is  simple,  resolve  it  into  its  clauses 
and  classify  each  clause  as  independent  or  dependent. 


486  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  Divide  the  simple  sentence  or  each  independent  clause 
into  its  complete  subject  and  complete  predicate. 

4.  Point  out  the  unmodified  subject  and  the  unmodified 
predicate.  (These  form  the  base  of  the  simple  sentence  or 
clause.) 

5.  Name  all  the  modifiers  of  the  subject,  with  their  modifiers 
(if  they  have  any). 

6.  Name  all  the  modifiers  and  complements  of  the  predicate, 
with  their  modifiers  (if  they  have  any). 

7.  Unless  the  sentence  is  simple,  analyze  each  remaining 
clause  according  to  steps  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  state  the  relation  of  each 
clause  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  indicate  each  connective. 

8.  Point  out  independent  elements  (if  the  sentence  contains 
any). 


CHAPTER  XXII 


SPELLING 


334.  Importance  of  learning  to  spell  correctly.  No  person, 
regardless  of  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  and  the  admirable 
qualities  of  his  speech,  is  considered  truly  educated  unless  he 
spells  correctly  all  the  words  that  he  uses.  Though  we  may 
find  it  necessary  throughout  life  to  consult  a  dictionary  now 
and  then  to  verify  our  spelling  of  certain  unusual  words,  we 
shall  save  ourselves  much  precious  time  and  later  embarrass- 
ment if,  during  our  school  days,  we  hold  ourselves  responsible 
for  the  correct  spelling  of  all  the  words  that  we  use.  Such  a 
habit  early  formed  will  be  of  inestimable  value  throughout  life. 
Unfortunately  no  set  of  simple  rules  for  spelling  can  be  formu- 
lated. If,  however,  we  make  use  of  the  rules  and  the  sugges- 
tions given  in  this  chapter  as  they  apply  to  the  various  words 
we  are  called  upon  to  spell,  we  shall  find  our  difficulties  de- 
creasing. Frequent  drill  in  the  spelling  of  the  words  included 
in  the  lists  that  follow  will  greatly  increase  our  efficiency.  But 
never  shall  we  be  wholly  independent  of  the  dictionary. 


Rules  for  Spelling 

Rule  I.  Words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  single  consonant 
preceded  by  a  single  vowel  double  the  final  consonant  before  a 
suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel. 


lag 

lagged 

lagging 

laggard 

stop 

stopped 

stopping 

stopper 

beg 

begged 

begging 

beggar 

sin 

sinned 

sinning 

sinner 

487 


488 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Rule  2.  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a  vowel. 


occur 

occurred 

occurring 

occurrence 

control 

controlled 

controlling 

controller 

remit 

remitted 

remitting 

remittance 

demur 

demurred 

demurring 

demurrer 

propel 

propelled 

propelling 

propeller 

Exception : 

unforgetable. 

Words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  not  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  do  not  double  the  final  consonant  before  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel. 

profit  profited  profiting  profitable 

marvel  marveled  marveling  marvelous 

conquer  conquered  conquering  conqueror 

A  few  words  may  be  spelled  according  to  either  division  of 
Rule  2. 


travel 
worship 
revel 
kidnap 


traveled 

travelled 

worshiped 

worshipped 

reveled 

revelled 

kidnaped 

kidnapped 


traveling 

travelling 

worshiping 

worshipping 

reveling 

revelling 

kidnaping 

kidnapping 


traveler 

traveller 

worshiper 

worshipper 

reveler 

reveller 

kidnaper 

kidnapper 


Rule  J.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  drop  the  e  before  a  suffix 


beginning  with  a  vowel. 

advise 
elevate 
oppose 
incline 


advising 

elevating 

opposing 

inclining 

securing 


advisable 

elevator 

opposite 

inclination 

security 


SPELLING 


489 


Note  i.  Words  ending  in  silent  c  following  c  or  ,?  retain  the  c  before 
a  suffix  beginning  with  a  or  0,  in  order  to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  c 
and  g. 


change 

changeable 

notice 

noticeable 

manage 

manageable 

outra«e 

outraseous 

damage 

damageable 

advantage 

advantageous 

peace 

peaceable 

umbrage 

umbrajjeous 

service 

serviceable 

courage 

courawous 

Note  :.    Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and  change  the  /  to  y  before 
a  suffix  beginning  with  /. 


lie 
die 


lying 
dying 


tie 
vie 


tying 
vying 


Note  3.    A  few  words  retain  the  final  e  before  the  suffix  ittg. 


dye 
hoe 
shoe 


dyeing 
hoeing 
shoeing 


singe 
tinge 
toe 


singeing 
tingeing 
toeing 


Rule  4.  Words  endin,!2;  in  silent  e  usually  retain  the  c  before 
a  suffix  beginning;  with  a  consonant. 


arrange 

arrangement 

nine 

ninety 

divine 

divinely 

late 

lateness 

rue 

rueful 

safe 

safety 

Judgment  and  acknowledgment  are  preferably  spelled  with- 
out the  final  silent  e  of  the  primitive  form. 

Note.    A  few  words  drop  the  final  c  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a  consonant. 


argue 
awe 


argument 
awful 


due 
true 


duly 
truly 


Rule  5.  In  words  containing  ei  or  ie  put  i  before  e  when  the 
combination  is  pronounced  as  ee,  except  after  c. 


believe 

reprieve 

conceive 

receipt 

brief 

yield 

conceit 

deceive 

chief 

grief 

ceiling 

deceit 

niece 

wield 

receive 

perceive 

490  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Exceptions:  either,  neither,  leisure,  species,  weird,  seized, 
plebeian. 

Note.   When  the  combination  of  the  two  vowels  has  the  sound  of 
long  a,  long  i,  or  short  e  or  i,  i  generally  follows  e. 


neigh 

weigh 

veil 

heifer 

inveigh 

freight 

sleight 

foreign 

sleigh 

neighbor 

height 

counterfeit 

Exceptions:  friend,  sieve,  ancient. 

Rule  6.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  usually 
change  y  to  i  before  a  suffix. 

busy  business  pity  pitiful 

easy  easily  envy  enviable 

harmony       harmonious  merry  merriment 

Note.    Final  y  is  retained  before  the  suffix  ing. 

worry  worrying  amplify         amplifying 

pacify  pacifying  hurry  hurrying 

Rule  7.  The  final  letter  of  a  word  or  prefix  is  generally  re- 
tained before  the  same  letter  in  the  suffix  or  root. 


legible 

illegible 

satisfied 

dissatisfied 

equal 

equally 

spent 

misspent 

prove 

approve 

sudden 

suddenness 

Rule  8.  A  word  ending  in  //  generally  drops  one  /  when  used 
as  a  prefix  or  suffix. 

already  fulfill  almost 

fearful  skillful  altogether 

335.  Helps  in  learning  to  spell,  i.  Pronounce  words  accu- 
rately. Do  not  slur  either  internal  vowels  or  consonants :  sepa- 
rate, not  seperate ;  laboratory,  not  lab'ratory ;  government,  not 
government.  Be  sure  that  the  word  is  properly  accented. 


SPELLING  491 

2.  In  spelling  derivative  and  compound  words  think  of  the 
root,  or  simplest  form  of  thr  word,  and  tiic  prelix  or  suffix 
(see  section  337)  :  in  spelling  separation  think  of  separate;  in 
spelling  professor  think  of  profess  and  or;  in  spelling  govern- 
ment think  of  govern  and  inent ;  in  s[)elling  dissatisfied  think 
of  dis  and  satisfied. 

3.  In  the  case  of  words  that  have  slight  resemblances  either 
in  appearance  or  in  sound,  think  of  what  each  word  means.  By 
this  method  you  can  distinguish  such  words  as  dining  and 
dinning  ;  rain,  reign,  and  rein  ;  aisle  and  isle. 

4.  In  a  notebook  keep  a  list  of  the  words  that  you  misspell. 
Study  the  list  at  regular  intervals  until  you  have  mastered  each 
word.  If  a  word  is  particularly  difficult,  write  it  several  times, 
dividing  it  into  syllables,  and  spell  it  aloud  as  you  write  it. 

336.  Syllabication.  In  both  oral  and  written  spelling  we  need 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  syllabication  of  words.  In  divid- 
ing a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line  we  should  make  the  division 
between  syllables,  not  elsewhere.  A  hyphen  should  be  used  to 
indicate  the  division.  The  rules  given  below  we  should  observe 
in  all  our  writing. 

1.  Never  divide  a  word  of  one  syllable. 

2.  In  general,  prefixes  and  suffixes  should  be  treated  as 
separate  syllables. 

de-fine  un-skill-ful  co-in-ci-dence  pre-em-i-nent 

3.  In  words  containing  double  consonants  the  syllabic  divi- 
sion almost  always  comes  between  the  consonants. 

plan-ning  oc-cur  cool-ly  com-ma  clean-ness 

Note.  Derivative  words  containing  a  simple  word  ending  in  a  double 
consonant  are  divided  according  to  Rule  2  if  the  suffix  begins  with  a 
vowel. 

cross-ing  will-ing  pass-a-b!c 


492  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4,  Never  divide  two  consonants  which  together  constitute  a 
single  sound.  Combinations  of  this  kind  are  gn,  ng,  gh,  ch,  rch, 
tch,  th,  ph. 

con-sign-ment  thith-er  haugh-ty  syc-o-phant 

5.  In  writing  do  not  separate  a  syllable  of  one  or  two  letters 
from  the  remainder  of  the  word. 

337.  Prefixes  and  suffixes.  A  knowledge  of  prefixes  and  suf- 
fixes, as  well  as  familiarity  with  their  meaning,  we  shall  find 
helpful  not  only  as  an  aid  to  correct  spelling  but  often  as  a  guide 
to  the  proper  use  of  words. 

The  following  list  contains  the  principal  prefixes  used  in 
the  formation  of  derivative  words : 

a,  ab  (from,  away)  :  avert,  abnormal,  absolve,  abrupt 

a,  an  (not,  without)  :  anaemic,  atonic,  anaesthetic 

ad  (to),  with  its  combining  forms  ac,  a},  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at: 
adhere,  accede,  affect,  aggressive,  alleviate,  annex,  appoint,  array, 
assign,  attract 

ambi  (around,  both) :  ambient,  ambiguous,  ambidextrous 

ante  (before) :  antedate,  antecedent,  anteroom 

anti  (against,  opposite) :  antidote,  antagonist,  antimacassar 

auto  (self)  :  automobile,  automatic,  autobiography 

befie  (well)  :  benefit,  benefactor,  benediction 

bi,  bis  (two,  twice)  :  biped,  bigamy,  biennial,  biscuit 

circum  (around,  about)  :  circumference,  circumscribe 

com,  con,  co,  col,  cor  (together,  with) :  compare,  conference,  convene, 
cooperate,  collision,  correspondent 

cotitra  (against,  opposite) :  contradict,  contraband 

de  (from,  down,  away)  :  defend,  dethrone,  depose,  deflect 

dia  (through) :  diameter,  diagram,  diagonal,  dialogue 

dis,  dif,  di  (away,  apart,  not)  :  dismiss,  discard,  disobey,  differ,  difficult, 
digress,  diminish 

e,  ex,  ef  (from,  out,  out  of,  off,  beyond)  :  emit,  emigrate,  expel,  expa- 
triate, effeminate,  efface 

epi  (on,  in,  besides)  ;  epitaph,  epigram,  epidemic,  epilogue 

eu  (well)  :  eugenic,  euphemism,  euphony,  eulogy 


SPELLING  493 

in,  en  (in,  into,  among)  :  inspire,  inciuest,  entangle 

in  (not) :  insincere,  innocent,  inorganic,  inopportune 

inter  (between,  among):  interrupt,  intervene,  intermittent 

intro  (witliin,  against;  :  introspective,  introduction 

mono  (single,  one):  monarch,  monopoly,  monogamy,  monoplane 

non  (not,  without) :  nonsense,  nonresident,  nonpartisan 

ob  (in  the  way  of,  against)  :  obviate,  obstruct,  obstinate 

per  (through,  for,  by)  :  perspire,  perpetual,  perennial 

post  (after) :  postscript,  postpone,  posterior,  post-mortem 

pre  (before) :  prearrange,  prelude,  prefix,  premeditated 

pro  (before,  instead  of):  proceed,  prologue,  pronoun 

re  (again,  back):  report,  retell,  retract,  reflect 

retro  (backward):  retrospective,  retroactive,  retrograde 

se  (aside,  apart) :  secede,  seclude,  separate,  selective 

sub  (under,  beneath)  :  subordinate,  subscribe,  substitute 

super  (above,  over)  :  superlative,  superannuate,  superintend 

syn  (together  with)  :  synonym,  synopsis,  syndicate,  synod 

tele  (afar)  :  telephone,  telegraph,  telescope,  telepathy 

trans  (across,  beyond):  translate,  transmit,  transpose,  transpire 

tri  (three,  thrice) :  triangle,  tripod,  trisect,  triune 

un,  iini  (one):  unanimous,  unison,  universe,  unicorn 

un  (not)  :  unequal,  unsafe,  unfamiliar,  unnecessary 

The  following  list  includes  the  principal  suffixes  used  in  the 
formation  of  derivative  words : 

able,  ible  (capable  of  being)  :  readable,  discernible 

ace,  acy,  ance,  ancy  (condition,  state  of  being)  :  menace,  illiteracy,  dis- 
turbance, buoyancy,  constancy 

age  (condition,  state)  :  marriage,  bondage,  dotage 

al,  eal,  ial  (pertaining  to) :  dismissal,  ethereal,  cereal,  filial,  cordial, 
celestial 

an,  ean,  ian  (pertaining  to,  one  who) :  Alaskan,  epicurean,  physician, 
musician 

ant  (relation,  quality) :  servant,  dependant,  discordant 

ar  (pertaining  to) :  stellar,  lunar,  solar,  vulgar 

ary  (pertaining  to.  one  who.  place  where)  obituary,  secretary,  dictionary 

ate  (state,  condition,  one  who,  to  make) :  fortunate,  desolate,  vindicate, 
facilitate,  illuminate 


494 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


ee  (one  who  is)  :  employee,  trustee,  payee,  patentee 

eer  (one  who  does)  :  auctioneer,  engineer,  profiteer 

ence,  ency  (condition,  state)  :  permanence,  transparency 

ent  (condition,  one  who)  :  affluent,  despondent,  resident 

fy,  ify  (to  make)  :  terrify,  pacify,  simplify,  rectify 

hood  (state,  condition) :  knighthood,  manhood,  falsehood 

ic  (made  of,  resembling) :  plastic,  tragic,  anthropomorphic 

He  (pertaining  to) :  senile,  puerile,  juvenile,  servile 

ioft  (state  of  being,  act)  :  completion,  expulsion,  creation 

ise,  ize  (to  make) :  familiarize,  civilize,  organize 

ist,  ite  (one  who)  :  artist,  organist,  suburbanite 

ity,  ty  (state,  quality)  :  vicinity,  purity,  veracity 

ive  (pertaining  to) :  creative,  selective,  administrative 

less  (without) :  helpless,  valueless,  worthless 

ment  (state  of  being) :  employment,  encouragement,  development 

or,  er  (one  who,  that  which)  :  sailor,  employer,  adviser,  founder,  binder 

ory,  ery  (place  where,  pertaining  to)  :  factory,  reformatory,  crematory, 

bindery,  inquisitory,  congratulatory 
ose,  ous  (full  of,  abounding  in)  :   verbose,  otiose,  jocose,  plenteous, 

adventurous,  courageous 
some  (full  of)  :  quarrelsome,  mettlesome,  troublesome 
Hide,  itude  (quality  of,  condition) :  gratitude,  servitude,  longitude,  lati- 
tude 
ure  (act,  condition) :  procedure,  tenure,  indenture 
ward  (in  the  direction  of) :  windward,  forward,  westward,  homeward 
Wright  (maker  of)  :  wheelwright,  shipwright 

338.  Spelling-list.    The  following  list  contains  the  majority 
of  words  that  give  students  trouble : 


abbreviate 

acquainted 

alley 

analogous 

absence 

acquitted 

allotted 

analysis 

absurd 

across 

ally 

anecdote 

academy 

addressed 

already 

annual 

accept 

adviser 

altogether 

antecedent 

accidentally 

aeroplane 

alumnus 

anxiety 

accommodate 

affects 

always 

apartment 

accumulate 

aggravate 

amateur 

apparatus 

accustom 

all  right 

among 

appearance 

SPELLING 

i 

appropriate 

business 

courteous 

doctor 

arctic 

busy 

courtesy 

doesn't 

argument 

cruelty 

don't 

arising 

calendar 

cylinder 

dormitories 

arithmetic 

candidate 

drudgery 

arrange 

can't 

daily 

dying 

arrival 

cemetery 

dealt 

ascend 

certain 

debater 

ecstasy 

ascertain 

changeable 

deceitful 

effects 

asks 

changing 

decide 

eighth 

athletic 

characteristic 

decision 

eliminate 

audience 

chauffeur 

deferred 

elliptical 

auxiliary 

chiffonier 

definite 

embarrass 

awkward 

choose 

derived 

emigrate 

chose 

descend 

eminent 

balance 

chosen 

describe 

encouraging 

banana 

colloquial 

description 

enemy 

baptize 

column 

desirous 

equipped 

barbarous 

coming 

despair 

erroneous 

baring 

commission 

desperate 

especially 

barring 

committee 

destroy 

etc. 

baseball 

comparative 

dictionary 

everybody 

based 

compel 

difference 

exaggerate 

bearing 

compelled 

digging 

exceed 

becoming 

competent 

dilemma 

excellent 

before 

concede 

dining-room 

except 

beggar 

conceivable 

dinning 

exceptional 

begging 

conferred 

dirigible 

exhaust 

beginning 

conquer 

disappear 

exhilarate 

believing 

conqueror 

disappoint 

existence 

benefited 

conscience 

disavowal 

expense 

bicycle 

conscientious 

discipline 

experience 

biscuit 

considered 

disease 

explanation 

boundaries 

continuous 

dissatisfied 

brilliant 

control 

dissipate 

facilitate 

Britain 

controlled 

distinction 

familiar 

Britannica 

coolly 

distribute 

fascinate 

buoyant 

cooperate 

divide 

February 

bureau 

country 

divine 

fiery 

495 


496 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


fifth 

imitative 

maintain 

occur 

finally 

immediately 

maintenance 

occurred 

financier 

immigration 

manual 

occurrence 

foreigner 

imminent 

manufacturer 

occurring 

forfeit 

imperative 

many 

o'clock 

forty 

impromptu 

marriage 

officers 

frantically 

incidentally 

material 

omission 

fraternity 

incidents 

mathematics 

omitted 

freshman 

incredulous 

mattress 

opinion 

friend 

independence 

meant 

opponent 

furniture 

indispensable 

measles 

opportunity 

induce 

messenger 

optimistic 

gallant 

infinite 

mileage 

original 

gambling 

influence 

miniature 

outrageous 

generally 

intellectual 

minutes 

overrun 

goddess 

intelligence 

mischievous 

owing 

government 

intentionally 

Mississippi 

governor 

intercede 

misspelled 

paid 

grammar 

invitation 

momentous 

pamphlet 

grandeur 

irresistible 

month 

pantomime 

grievous 

itself 

mosquitoes 

parallel 

guard 

murmur 

parliament 

guess 

judgment 

mysterious 

participial 

guidance 

particularly 

knowledge 

necessary 

partner 

harass 

negroes 

pastime 

haul 

laboratory 

neither 

peaceable 

having 

ladies 

nickel 

perceive 

height 

laid 

niece 

perceptible 

hesitancy 

liable 

nineteenth 

perception 

holloed 

library 

ninetieth 

peremptory 

huge 

lieutenant 

ninth 

perform 

humorous 

lightning 

noticeable 

perhaps 

hundredths 

Hkely 

nowadays 

permissible 

hurriedly 

literature 

perseverance 

hygienic 

loneliness 

oblige 

perspiration 

hypocrisy 

loosing 

obstacle 

persuade 

losing 

occasion 

pertain 

imaginary 

lying 

occasionally 

pervade 

SPELLING 

physical 

quantity 

sergeant 

thousandths 

picnic 

quizzes 

several 

till 

picnicking 

shiftless 

together 

planned 

rapid 

shining 

track 

pleasant 

ready 

shriek 

tract 

politician 

really 

siege 

tragedy 

politics 

recede 

similar 

tranquillity 

possession 

receive 

simultaneous 

transferred 

possible 

recognize 

since 

translate 

poultry 

recommend 

soliloquy 

treacherous 

practically 

reference 

sophomore 

treasurer 

prairie 

referred 

speak 

tries 

precede 

regard 

specimen 

trouble 

precedence 

region 

speech 

truly 

precedents 

religion 

statement 

Tuesday 

preference 

religious 

stopped 

typical 

preferred 

repetition 

stopping 

tyranny 

prejudice 

replies 

stops 

preparation 

representative 

stories 

universally 

prevalent 

reservoir 

stretch 

until 

primitive 

restaurant 

strictly 

using 

principal 

rheumatism 

substantial 

usually 

principle 

rhythmic 

succeeds 

prisoner 

ridiculous 

successful 

vacancy 

privilege 

righteous 

summarize 

vengeance 

probably 

superintendent 

vigilance 

procedure 

sacrilegious 

supersede 

vigor 

proceed 

safety 

sure 

village 

prodigy 

sandwich 

surprise 

villain 

profession 

scarcely 

syllable 

visible 

professor 

schedule 

symmetrical 

volunteer 

proffered 

science 

prohibition 

scream 

temperament 

warring 

promissory 

screech 

tendency 

weak 

prove 

seems 

than 

weather 

purchase 

seize 

therefore 

weird 

pursue 

sense 

they're 

welfare 

pursuit 

sentence 

thief 

where 

putting 

separate 

thorough 

wherever 

497 


498 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


whether 

wintry 

world 

yacht 

which 

wiry 

wrath 

yield 

whole 

within 

wrist 

wholly 

without 

writing 

zephyr 

wield 

women 

written 

zoology 

EXERCISE 

Go  through  the  list  of  words  slowly,  noticing  carefully  the  spell- 
ing of  each  word.  Analyze  each  derivative  word  into  its  root  and 
its  prefix  or  suffix.  Copy  in  your  notebook  all  words  that  give  you 
trouble.  Study  these  words  at  frequent  intervals  until  you  have 
mastered  them. 

339.  Words  frequently  confused.  In  addition  to  the  list 
above,  a  brief  supplementary  list  of  words  frequently  confused 
is  here  given.  Associate  the  spelling  and  the  correct  meaning 
of  each  word.  Notice  also  the  part  of  speech  to  which  it  be- 
longs.   Make  free  use  of  your  dictionary  in  studying  this  list. 


accept,  except 

access,  excess 

advice,  advise 

affect,  effect 

all  ready,  already 

all  together,  altogether 

alley,  ally 

allude,  elude 

allusion,  illusion 

altar,  alter 

angel,  angle 

ascent,  assent 

berth,  birth 

born,  borne 

breadth,  breath,  breathe 

bridal,  bridle 

Britain,  Briton 


Calvary,  cavalry 

canvas,  canvass 

capital,  capitol 

censor,  censure 

chord,  cord 

cite,  sight,  site 

cloth,  clothe,  cloths,  clothes 

coarse,  course 

complement,  compliment 

confidant (e),  confident 

corps,  corpse 

costume,  custom 

council,  counsel,  consul 

council  (1)  or,  counsel  (1)  or 

dairy,  diary 
deceased,  diseased 
decent,  descent,  dissent 


SPELLING 


499 


desert,  dessert 
device,  devise 
dew,  due 
dual,  duel 
dyeing,  dying 

elicit,  illicit 
emigrant,  immigrant 
emigrate,  immigrate 
envelop,  envelope 

fair,  fare 
finally,  finely 
formally,  formerly 
forth,  fourth 
freeze,  frieze 

hear,  here 

hoard,  horde 

holey,  holly,  holy,  wholly 

hoping,  hopping 

humerus,  humorous 

idle,  idol,  idyl 
ingenious,  ingenuous 
instance,  instants 
irrelevant,  irreverent 
it's,  its 

knead,  need 
knew,  new 
know,  no 

later,  latter 
lead,  led 
lessen,  lesson 
lightening,  lightning 
loath,  loathe 
loose,  lose 


mantel,  mantle 
mean,  mien 
metal,  mettle 
muscle,  mussel 

of,  off 

pardoner,  partner 
passed,  past 
peace,  piece 
persevere,  preserve 
personal,  personnel 
plain,  plane 
pore,  pour 
practice,  practise 
precede,  proceed 
precedence,  precedents 
presence,  presents 
principal,  principle 
prophecy,  prophesy 

quiet,  quit,  quite 

rain,  reign,  rein 

rap,  wrap 

respectfully,  respectively 

rhyme,  rhythm 

right,  rite,  wright,  write 

ring,  wring 

road,  rode 

scene,  seen 
seize,  siege 
severally,  severely 
shone,  shown 
sing,  singe 
staid,  stayed 
stationary,  stationery 


500 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


statue,  stature,  statute 
steal,  steel 
straight,  strait 
suit,  suite 

taught,  taut 
than,  then 
their,  there 
therefor,  therefore 
threw,  through 
throne,  thrown 
to,  too,  two 


track,  tract 
troop,  troupe 

waive,  wave 
wander,  wonder 
ware,  wear 
weak,  week 
weather,  whether 
which,  witch 
who's,  whose 

your,  you're 


340.  Proper  names  frequently  misspelled.  The  following  list 
contains  proper  names  often  misspelled.  To  it  may  be  added 
other  names  that  give  you  trouble. 


Annapolis 

Apollo 

Burns 's 

Carlyle 

Chesapeake 

Coleridge 

De  Quincey 

Dickens's 

Eliot,  George 

February 

Huguenots 


Johnson,  Samuel 

Jonson,  Ben 

Macaulay 

Macbeth 

Massachusetts 

Mediterranean 

Mississippi 

Odyssey 

Parliament 

Philippi 

Philippines 


Renaissance 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley 

Shelley 

Spencer,  Herbert 

Spenser,  Edmund 

Tennessee 

Thackeray 

Ulysses 

Waverley 

Wednesday 

Westminster 


APPENDIX  A 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR    STUDYING    THE    PRINCIPAL    TYPES    OF 
LITERATURE  ' 

The  author's  background.  Befure  any  piece  of  literature  can 
be  studied  with  profit,  the  age  that  produced  the  author  must  be 
understood.  Acquaintance  with  the  political,  social,  and  literary 
history  of  the  period  may  be  acquired  by  studying  such  topics  as 
the  following:  (i)  important  historical  events  of  the  period; 
( 2 )  the  status  of  literature  ;  ( 3 )  means  and  extent  of  public  educa- 
tion ;  (4)  moral  and  religious  standards;  {5)  social  customs; 
(6)  literary  predecessors ;  (7)  literary  contemporaries. 

The  author  and  his  work.  Fully  as  important  as  a  knowledge 
of  the  author's  background  is  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
author  himself  and  his  work.  From  a  text  in  the  history  of  litera- 
ture, from  a  biography,  and  from  biographical  essays  information 
on  such  topics  as  the  following  may  be  obtained:  (i )  the  date  and 
place  of  the  author's  birth  ;  (2)  the  economic  and  social  rank  of  his 
family;  (3)  his  education;  (4)  his  acquaintance  with  influential 
people;  (5)  other  advantages  that  he  enjoyed;  (6)  disadvantages 
that  he  overcame;  (7)  his  chief  interests  in  early  life;  (8)  why  he 
became  a  writer;  (9)  writers  by  whom  he  was  most  influenced; 
(10)  his  principal  writings;  (11)  his  purpose  in  writing  the  selec- 
tion now  being  studied;  (12)  circumstances  connected  with  his 
later  years  and  death  ;  ( 13 )  his  place  and  influence  in  literature. 

In  addition  to  the  biographical  information  concerning  the  au- 
thor and  his  work,  much  may  be  learned  of  him  from  his  writings, 
which  constitute  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  his  mental  and 
spiritual  autobiography.    In  familiar  essays  and  in  lyric  poetry  the 

ijf  more  specific  guidance  in  the  study  of  the  classics  prescribed  by  the 
College-Entrance  Examination  Board  is  desired.  Trent,  Hanson,  and  Brew- 
ster's "Introduction  to  the  English  Classics"  (Revised  Edition),  published 
by  Ginn  and  Company,  will  prove  helpful. 


a  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

personality  of  the  writer  is  a  more  evident,  as  well  as  a  more  essen- 
tial, quality  than  it  is  in  other  types  of  literature,  though  in  almost 
all  it  can  be  easily  detected. 

The  study  of  prose  fiction.  The  principal  modern  types  of 
prose  fiction  are  (i)  the  novel  and  (2)  the  short  story.  In  the 
study  of  each  of  these  there  are  five  important  items  to  consider: 
( I )  the  plot,  or  the  plan  by  which  the  author  arranges  the  incidents 
of  his  story  with  reference  to  the  outcome;  (2)  the  characters,  or 
the  people  who  take  part  in  the  action  of  the  story ;  (3)  the  setting, 
or  the  place  and  the  time  of  the  action ;  (4)  the  theme,  or  the  cen- 
tral idea  that  forms  the  basis  of  the  story ;  and  (5)  the  author  and 
his  purpose  in  writing  the  story. 

I.    The  Novel 

Plot.  I.  Is  the  plot  well  constructed?  2.  Is  it  simple  or  com- 
plex? 3.  Enumerate  the  plot  incidents  anci  show  that  they  con- 
stitute the  framework  of  the  story.  4.  Are  the  incidents  arranged 
in  the  order  of  time,  or  is  the  action  inverted?  5.  Enumerate  the 
most  dramatic  incidents  and  explain  their  bearing  on  the  plot. 

6.  What  incident  furnishes  the  climax  (the  turning-point  in  the 
main  action)  of  the  story?  7.  Draw  a  diagram  representing  the 
rising  action  and  the  falling  action.  8.  What  incidents  are  in- 
dispensable to  the  plot  ?  9.  Are  there  any  episodes  that  might  be 
omitted  without  impairing  the  plot?  10.  Is  the  movement  of  the 
story  as  a  whole  swift  or  slow?  11.  What  incidents  and  scenes 
particularly  impress  you  ? 

Characters.  1.  Are  the  characters  many  or  few?  2.  Name  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  characters.  3.  Does  the  author  re- 
veal his  characters  by  analysis,  by  conversation,  or  by  their  influ- 
ence on  others  ?  4.  What  impression  does  the  heroine  make  on  first 
appearance?  the  hero?  5.  Is  the  leading  character  unmistakable 
and  well  portrayed?    6.  Are  the  characters  real  or  conventional  ? 

7.  Which  characters  are  the  most  natural?  8.  Which  (if  any) 
seem  overdrawn?  9.  Who  is  the  principal  character  in  the  main 
plot?  in  the  subplot?  10.  Which  characters  develop  as  the  story 
advances?  11.  Is  the  author  sympathetic  toward  his  characters? 
12.  How  does  he  dispose  of  them  at  the  end  of  the  story? 


APPENDIX  A  Hi 

Setting.  I.  How  much  does  the  setting  contribute  to  your  in- 
terest in  the  story?  2.  Is  it  an  indispensable  part  of  the  story? 
3.  Is  it  simple  or  elaborate?  4.  Does  the  background  harmonize 
with  the  action  and  the  characters  ?  5.  In  the  intrcxiuction  do  you 
discover  a  dominant  tone?  6.  Does  the  setting  lend  atmosphere  to 
the  story?  7.  Is  the  setting  historical?  Is  it  romantic?  8.  Are 
the  descriptions  of  nature  numerous  and  long  ?  9.  Are  they  closely 
connected  with  the  plot  ?  10.  Does  the  leading  character's  environ- 
ment greatly  influence  his  or  her  actions?  11.  Does  the  author 
possess  noticeable  skill  in  writing  description  ?  12.  Mention  scenes 
that  impress  you  because  of  the  vividness  of  the  description. 

Theme,  i.  State  in  one  sentence  the  theme,  or  central  idea,  of 
the  story.  2.  Are  there  any  secondary  themes?  3.  Does  the  story 
teach,  preach,  or  merely  entertain  ?  4.  Do  you  consider  the  central 
truth  significant? 

The  author:  his  purpose,  traits,  and  style,  i.  Is  the  author's 
purpose  definite  and  easily  discoverable?  2,  Is  it  a  worthy  pur- 
pose? 3.  Does  he  write  to  entertain,  to  reform,  or  to  stress  a 
moral?    4.  Does  he  give  an  essentially  true  representation  of  life? 

5.  Do  you  agree  with  the  author  in  his  way  of  looking  at  life? 

6.  Do  you  notice  any  peculiarities  of  style?  7.  Does  the  author 
emplay  any  special  devices  to  secure  effects?  8.  Does  he  make 
effective  use  of  dialogue?  9.  Comment  on  the  author's  use  of 
words.  10.  How  does  he  secure  emotional  response?  11.  Does 
the  author's  style  harmonize  with  his  theme?  with  the  character 
of  his  story?    12.  Is  the  author  a  careful  observer  of  nature? 

13.  Quote  passages  that  illustrate  beauty  and  clearness  of  style. 

14.  What  have  you  learned  about  the  author's  skill  in  writing? 

15.  Find  examples  of  vividness,  contrast,  directness.  16.  Does  the 
author  impress  you  as  being  a  particularly  likable  person?  If  so, 
why? 

II.    The  Short  Story 

Plot.  I .  State  the  plot  of  the  story  in  a  single  sentence.  2 .  What 
single  impression  does  the  story  produce?  3.  What  is  the  com- 
plicating incident  that  gives  rise  to  the  action  of  the  story  ?  4.  What 
is  the  plot  problem  that  the  author  solves  by  means  of  the  story  ? 


iv  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

5.  What  is  the  climax?  6.  How  near  the  end  of  the  story  does  it 
come?  7.  Show  how  the  writer  secures  suspense.  8.  Are  the  inci- 
dents arranged  in  chronological  order  ?  g.  Show  the  causal  relation 
between  the  plot  incidents  of  the  story.  10.  At  the  end  of  the  story 
how  have  the  situation  and  the  relation  of  the  characters  changed 
from  what  they  were  at  the  beginning  ? 

Characters,  i.  How  many  characters  are  there  ?  2.  Who  is  the 
preeminent  character?  3.  By  what  means  of  direct  and  indirect 
characterization  has  the  author  revealed  his  characters?  4.  How 
early  in  the  story  does  the  author  acquaint  you  with  his  principal 
characters?    5.  From  what  point  of  view  is  the  story  told? 

Setting.  I.  What  are  the  place  setting  and  time  setting  ?  2.  Do 
they  change  in  the  course  of  the  story  ?  3.  How  much  time  is  cov- 
ered by  the  action?  4.  Does  the  author  accurately  describe  his 
setting,  or  does  he  merely  suggest  it?  5.  Does  the  setting  lend 
atmosphere  to  the  story  ?  6.  Has  the  story  an  enveloping  action  ? 
7.  Point  out  instances  of  contrast  in  setting  and  in  character. 

Theme,    i.  What  is  the  theme,  or  central  idea,  of  the  story? 

2.  Is  this  theme  prominently  brought  out,  or  is  it  incidental? 

3.  Is  the  relation  between  the  theme  and  the  action  of  the  story 
natural  and  convincing,  or  forced  and  weak  ? 

The  author:  his  purpose  and  his  style,  i.  Is  the  author's  pur- 
pose to  entertain,  to  teach,  or  to  emphasize  a  moral  truth?  2.  Is 
he  best  in  description,  characterization,  or  vivid  narration  ?  3.  Does 
the  dialogue  seem  natural?  4.  Is  his  diction  commonplace  or 
striking?  5.  Is  the  story,  as  told,  worth  telling?  6.  Have  you 
read  a  better  story  written  by  another  author  on  the  same  theme  ? 

The  study  of  the  drama.  A  drama  may  be  written  in  either 
verse  or  prose.  According  to  the  author's  purpose  in  writing  a 
drama,  it  may  be  tragedy,  comedy,  melodrama,  or  farce.  Since 
dramas  are  written  to  be  presented  before  an  audience  by  actors  on 
a  stage,  they  are  usually  briefer  than  novels  and,  in  general,  contain 
more  action.  In  reading  a  drama,  one  is  called  upon  to  supply  by 
means  of  his  imagination  what  the  novelist  would  furnish  in  the 
descriptions  and  explanations  of  his  settings  and  his  characters. 
In  studying  a  play  of  one,  three,  four,  or  five  acts,  the  following 
questions  will  prove  helpful  in  making  a  general  analysis  of  it: 


APPENDIX  A  V 

Plot.  I.  Has  the  play  one  [)l(jt  only,  or  has  il  a  main  plot  and 
one  or  more  minor  plots?  2.  EnunnTatc  the  plot  incidents  that 
constitute  the  play.  3.  Summarize  the  main  action  as  brielly  as 
you  can.  4.  What  is  the  inciting  force?  5.  At  what  point  does 
the  rising  action  culminate  and  the  falling  action  begin  ?  6.  Draw 
a  diagram  of  the  plot.  7.  Are  there  any  unnecessary  scenes? 
8.  What  constitutes  the  struggle  of  the  play?  9.  Is  the  struggle 
mental,  moral,  or  physical?  10.  Is  the  clima.x  well  marked  and 
effective?  11.  Explain  the  author's  use  of  suspense.  12.  Is  the 
action  of  the  play  swift  or  slow  ? 

Characters,  i.  Are  the  characters  many  or  few?  2.  Xame  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  characters.  3.  Who  is  the  dominant 
character?  4.  How  are  the  leading  characters  introduced  ?  5.  Do 
the  characters  talk  naturally  ?  6.  What  is  the  author's  method  of 
revealing  them?  7.  Which  characters  develop  and  which  remain 
the  same  during  the  course  of  the  play  ?  8.  Is  the  interest  in 
characters  greater  than  the  interest  in  events?  9.  How  are  the 
characters  disposed  of  at  the  end  of  the  play  ? 

Setting.  I.  Is  the  setting  important?  2.  Is  the  interest  in  set- 
ting greater  than  the  interest  in  plot  or  characters  ?  3.  What  is  the 
time  setting  of  the  play?  4.  By  what  touches  does  the  author 
suggest  the  place  and  time?  5.  Does  setting  contribute  atmos- 
phere or  a  dominant  tone  to  the  play  ?  6.  Does  the  plot  depend  in 
any  way  upon  the  setting?  7.  How  does  the  author  give  the  im- 
pression that  time  is  passing  ? 

Theme,  i.  What  is  the  dominant  idea  of  the  play?  2.  Does 
the  play  teach  a  lesson?  reveal  a  human  truth?  present  a  problem? 
3,  Is  the  theme  clearly  defined  and  effectively  illustrated  by  the 
action  of  the  play  ?  4.  Can  you  formulate  the  theme  of  the  play  in 
one  sentence  ? 

The  author  and  his  style,  i.  Has  the  author  any  special  dis- 
tinction of  style?  2.  Is  his  style  commonplace  or  striking?  3.  Is 
his  diction  noticeably  good?  4.  Are  there  any  effective  figures 
of  speech?  5.  Does  the  play  contain  any  especially  beautiful 
passages  ? 

The  study  of  the  essay.  The  study  of  an  essay  involves  a  con- 
sideration of  the  following  points:   (i)  the  author's  purpose,  (2) 


vi  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  structure  of  the  essay,  (3)  the  theme,  or  central  idea,  (4)  the 
author's  personality,  (5)  the  diction  and  allusions,  and  (6)  the 
style.    (For  a  discussion  of  the  essay  see  section  270.) 

The  author's  purpose.  1.  Is  the  author's  purpose  to  instruct  or 
to  entertain?    2.  Is  the  essay  formal  or  informal? 

Structure,  i.  Does  the  essay  give  evidence  of  careful  planning  ? 
2.,  Are  the  paragraphs  well  constructed?  3.  Make  a  topical  out- 
line of  the  essay.   4.  What  means  of  transition  does  the  author  use  ? 

Theme.  1.  What  is  the  theme,  or  central  idea,  of  the  essay? 
2.  Is  it  presented  convincingly?  3.  Is  it  made  more  attractive  by 
means  of  concrete  illustrations?  by  humor?  by  the  author's 
personality  ? 

The  author's  personality,  i .  Does  the  author  seem  to  possess  a 
pleasing  personality?  2.  Has  he  lofty  ideals?  3.  Is  he  sincere? 
sympathetic?  critical?  impartial?  4.  Is  he  a  great  lover  of  books 
and  people?  5.  What  are  his  hobbies?  6.  Are  his  likes  and  dis- 
likes very  pronounced?  7.  Has  he  a  sense  of  humor?  8.  Is  he  a 
close  observer?  9.  Has  he  a  vivid  imagination?  10.  Should  you 
enjoy  having  him  for  a  friend  ? 

Diction  and  allusion.   1.  Has  the  essayist  a  wide  range  of  words  ? 

2.  Is  his  diction  precise  ?  vivid  ?  individual  ?  vigorous  ?  euphonious  ? 

3.  Has  he  any  favorite  words  or  expressions  that  you  have  discov- 
ered?   4.  To  what  extent  does  he  employ  figurative  language? 

5.  Are  his  illustrations  well  chosen?  6.  From  what  principal 
sources  are  his  allusions  drawn  ? 

Style.  I.  Is  the  essayist's  language  simple  or  elaborate?  2.  Is 
his  style  commonplace,  striking,  or  brilliant?  3.  Is  the  style  well 
adapted  to  the  subject  matter  and  the  theme  ?  4.  Are  the  sentences 
clean-cut  and  direct,  or  ponderous  and  involved?  5.  To  what  ex- 
tent does  the  style  contribute  to  your  enjoyment  of  the  essay? 

6.  Point  out  several  passages  that  illustrate  characteristics  of  the 
essayist's  style.    7.  Does  the  essay  possess  charm  ? 

The  study  of  poetry.  Since  the  comprehension  of  the  writer's 
thought  is  more  difficult  in  poetry  than  in  prose,  the  poem  to  be 
studied  should  be  read  and  re-read  until  the  author's  purpose  and 
thought  are  fully  understood.  The  poem  may  then  be  studied  by 
means  of  the  following  questions : 


APPENDIX  A  vii 

The  approach  to  the  poem.  i.  Is  the  poem  narrative,  dramatic, 
lyric,  descriptive,  or  didactic  ?  (See  pages  xxiii-xxiv.)  2.  Does  it 
represent  a  special  structural  type,  such  as  the  sonnet?  3.  What 
seems  to  be  its  purpose?  4.  State  as  best  you  can  its  principal 
thought  or  incident.  5.  What  other  poem  that  you  have  read  con- 
tains the  same  thought  or  incident  ?  6.  Is  the  chief  appeal  of  the 
poem  to  your  emotions  or  to  your  intellect?  7.  Is  the  poem  easy 
or  difficult  to  read  ?  (Try  by  reading  it  aloud  to  someone  to  inter- 
pret the  thought  accurately.)    8.  Do  you  find  the  poem  enjoyable? 

Structure.  (Study  Appendix  C.)  i.  In  what  meter  is  the  poem 
written?     In  what  stanza   form?      2.  Scan   the   first  six   lines. 

3.  Test  the  rhythm  by  reading  these  lines  aloud.  4.  Is  the  struc- 
ture of  the  poem  well  adapted  to  the  thought  or  emotion  expressed  ? 

Vividness,  i.  Point  out  examples  of  vividness  gained  by  the  use 
of  figures  of  speech  and  identify  each  figure.  2.  Do  you  find  any 
appeals  to  the  various  senses?  3.  Do  the  details  that  are  included 
call  up  vivid  pictures  in  your  mind?  4.  Does  the  poem  produce 
in  you  a  definite  emotional  response?  5.  Does  it  recall  vividly 
some  memory?  some  mental  or  spiritual  experience? 

Diction  and  allusions,  i.  Is  the  language  of  the  poem  simple  or 
learned?  2.  What  archaic  or  obsolete  words  and  expressions  do 
you  find  ?    3.  Point  out  examples  of  well-chosen  connotative  words. 

4.  Do  you  find  any  onomatopoeic  words?  5.  From  what  sources 
are  the  allusions  drawn?  6.  Point  out  any  particularly  melodious 
lines  or  passages. 

The  author's  personality,  i.  What  characteristics  of  the  au- 
thor's personality  are  revealed  in  the  poem?  2.  Does  he  impress 
you  as  being  buoyant,  robust,  and  optimistic,  or  timid,  delicate, 
and  pessimistic?  3.  Is  he  chiefly  a  man  of  action  or  of  reflection? 
4.  Is  he  a  close  observer?  5.  Is  he  intimately  acquainted  with 
nature?  6.  Does  he  thoroughly  understand  and  sympathize  with 
people?  7.  Is  he  a  poet  of  books  or  of  people?  8.  What  char- 
acteristic do  you  most  admire  in  him?  9.  Is  his  poem  to  any  ex- 
tent autobiographic?    10.  Does  he  remind  you  of  any  other  poet? 


APPENDIX  B 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  USING  A  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

The  library  catalogue.  Every  modern  school  or  public  library 
has  a  card  catalogue  of  all  the  books  and  periodicals  that  it  con- 
tains. On  each  card  appear  the  title  of  a  book,  the  letter  or  letters 
indicating  the  library  classification  of  the  book,  and  a  group  of 
figures  showing  in  what  section  and  on  what  shelf  of  the  library  the 
book  is  to  be  found.  Usually  each  book  is  represented  by  three  dif- 
ferent cards,  arranged  in  one  alphabetical  series  in  the  trays  of  the 
filing-cabinet.  That  is,  each  book  is  classified  according  to  (i)  the 
title,  (2)  the  name  of  the  author,  and  (3)  the  general  subject.  For 
example,  "One-Act  Plays  by  Modern  Authors,"  edited  by  Helen 
Louise  Cohen,  would  be  represented  by  a  card  under  the  subject  of 
Drama,  a  card  for  the  title,  "One- Act  Plays  by  Modern  Authors," 
and  a  card  for  the  name  of  the  editor,  Helen  Louise  Cohen.  In 
filling  out  a  library  slip  requesting  the  loan  of  a  book,  you  should 
write  down  the  following  items:  (i)  the  title  of  the  book,  (2)  the 
name  of  the  author,  (3)  the  classification  letter  or  letters  and  the 
call  number,  and  (4)  your  name  and  address.  If  you  need  further 
information  concerning  the  use  of  the  card  catalogue,  you  may 
obtain  it  from  the  librarian  or  an  assistant. 

EXERCISE 

Consult  the  card  catalogue  of  your  school  or  public  library  to 
see  whether  it  has  a  novel,  a  collection  of  essays,  or  a  book  of  poems 
that  you  wish  to  read.  Look  for  the  three  different  cards  repre- 
senting the  book. 

Reference  books.  In  every  well-equipped  school  library,  as 
well  as  in  many  public  libraries,  the  following  reference  books 
should  be  available : 

viu 


APPENDIX  B  ix 

Encyclopedias 

Encylopardia  Britannica  (eleventh  edition,  twenty-nine  volumes, 
1910;  three  supplementary  volumes  added  in  1922).  Very  full; 
highly  authoritative,  but  not  for  ready  reference. 

New  International  Encyclopirdia  (reedited  in  191 6).  Brief;  good 
for  contemporary  biography. 

Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia.  Popular ;  full  treatment  of  Amer- 
ican biography,  politics,  and  natural  sciences. 

Chambers's  Encyclopaedia.    Brief  and  pofnilar  in  character. 

Dictionaries 

Standard  Dictionary.    Useful  for  technical  expressions  in  trade. 

Century  Dictionary.  Full  and  authoritative;  gives  brief,  clear 
account  of  subject ;  volume  of  proper  names  especially  valuable. 

Webster's  New  International  Dictionary,  New  and  enlarged  edi- 
tion, with  copious  and  exact  etymologies;  especially  good  for 
defmitions. 

Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases.  A  standard 
book  of  synonyms. 

Fernald's  English  Synonyms  and  Antonyms.  Many  illustrations 
and  expositions  of  the  differences  in  meaning. 

B10GR.APHICAL  Dictionaries 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  Confined  to  English  biography 
and  to  persons  dead  at  the  date  of  publication.  The  articles 
are  full  and  authoritative.  In  the  index  and  epitome  is  a  con- 
venient summary  of  dates  and  facts. 

Thomas's  Comprehensive  Dictionary  of  Biography.  Brief,  trust- 
worthy accounts  of  great  men  of  all  countries. 

Men  and  Women  of  the  Time.  Contemporary  t^nglish  and  Ameri- 
can men  and  women. 

Who's  Who.  An  annual  publication  ;  living  persons  of  note,  mostly 
English. 

Who's  Who  in  America.  A  biennial  publication;  noteworthy  liv- 
ing Americans. 


X  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Selections  from  English  and  American  Literature 

Allibone's  Dictionary.    A  brief  account  of  British  and  American 

authors. 
Harvard  Classics.    For  selections. 

Warner's  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature.    For  selections. 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  Library  of  American  Literature.    For 

selections. 

Allusions  and  Quotations 

Brewer's  Reader's  Handbook.    Allusions,  references,  plots,  stories. 
Strong's  Exhaustive  Concordance.    An  index  to  every  word  in  the 

Bible. 
Bartlett's  Concordance  to  Shakespeare.    An  index  to  the  words  in 

Shakespeare. 
Bartlett's  Familiar  Quotations.    An  index  to  a  large  number  of  the 

quotations  most  frequently  met  with. 
Brewer's  Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable.    This  explains  a  great 

quantity  of  common  allusions  expressed  in  words  and  phrases. 
Century  Cyclopedia  of  Names.    This  includes  not  only  names  of 

real  persons  but  also  those  of  many  famous  characters  in  fiction. 
Lippincott's  Universal  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Biography  and 

Mythology. 

Classical  Dictionaries  and  Handbooks 

Smith's  Classical  Dictionary.    Greek  and  Roman  biography  and 

mythology. 
Anthon's  Classical  Dictionary.    Greek  and  Roman  biography  and 

mythology ;  full  treatment  of  geography. 
Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable.    Greek  and  Roman  mytholog\^ 
Gayley's  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature.    Greek,  Roman,  and 

Norse  mythology. 
Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 
Larned's  History  for  Ready  Reference. 


APPEXUIX   li  xi 

Cyclopedias  of  Arts  and  Sciences 

Bliss's  Encyclopedia  oj  Social  Rtjorm. 

Sliirgis's  Dictionary  oj  Architecture  and  Building. 

Grove's  Dictionary  oj  Music  and  Musicians. 

Reference  Books  on  Current  Topics 

T/ic  Statesman's  Y ear-Book.  Arranged  by  countries;  contains  a 
great  mass  of  facts ;  a  bibliography  follows  the  section  devoted 
to  each  country  or  state. 

The  World  Almanac.  Contains  an  enormous  mass  of  facts,  chietly 
American. 

Whitaker's  Almanac.  Much  miscellaneous  information  about  the 
British  Empire  and  other  countries. 

The  .Annual  Register  and  The  New  International  Yearbook.  These 
two  books  give  information  about  the  events  of  the  year  pre- 
ceding publication. 

Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature.  .\n  index,  by  title  and 
subject,  to  all  the  articles  in  important  English  and  American 
periodicals  from  1802  to  1908. 

Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature.  .\  continuation  of  Poole's 
Index  since  1908  ;  it  is  brought  up  to  date  each  month. 

Miscellaneous  Works 

The  Century  Atlas.    Contains  classified  references  to  places. 

Library  Atlas  oj  the  World.    Excellent  maps. 

Lippincott's  New  Gazetteer.  Useful  for  the  spelling  and  the  pro- 
nunciation of  geographical  names;  condensed  geographical 
information. 

The  Handy  Rejerence  Atlas.    A  useful  book  for  the  library  table. 

Ploetz's  Epitome  oj  Universal  History.  A  compact  epitome  of 
history,  with  all  the  important  dates. 

Bibliographies  issued  by  the  Library  oj  Congress. 

Sonnenschein's  The  Best  Books.  A  guide  to  about  fifty  thousand 
of  the  best  available  books  in  a  variety  of  fields. 


xii  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Spend  at  least  two  hours  in  finding  out  which  of  the  reference 
books  mentioned  above  are  in  your  school  or  public  library,  and  get 
acquainted  with  as  many  of  them  as  you  can. 

Suggestions  concerning  the  use  of  a  library.  If  you  observe 
the  following  simple  suggestions  for  using  a  library,  you  will  save 
yourself  much  time  and  labor  and  greatly  add  to  your  enjoyment 
of  books. 

1.  Ascertain  beforehand,  as  definitely  as  possible,  what  facts  you 
are  to  look  for  and  in  what  books  these  facts  are  to  be  found. 

2.  If  you  wish  to  collect  material  from  several  books  and  do  not 
know  what  books  are  available,  use  the  catalogue.  Suppose  your 
subject  is  "The  Search  for  the  North  Pole."  Under  "North  Pole" 
or  "Exploration"  you  will  probably  find  references  to  Nansen, 
Baldwin,  Kane,  Peary,  and  other  explorers.  If  you  look  up  these 
names,  you  will  find  a  list  of  special  books  to  be  consulted. 

3.  If  you  wish  to  use  magazine  articles,  as  you  will  often  have 
occasion  to  do  when  the  subject  is  one  of  recent  interest,  consult 
Poole's  Index  and  the  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature,  a 
series  of  bound  volumes  which  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  best 
magazine  articles  as  does  the  catalogue  to  the  books  of  the  library. 

4.  When  you  have  ascertained  what  books  and  magazine  articles 
are  at  your  disposal,  select  those  that  seem  most  likely  to  be  inter- 
esting and  authoritative.  If  you  need  advice  as  to  which  are  the 
best  for  your  purpose,  consult  your  teacher  or  the  librarian. 

5.  Study  carefully  the  table  of  contents  and  the  index  of  a  book 
to  find  out  the  author's  development  of  the  subject,  his  arrangement 
of  the  parts  of  that  subject,  and  the  chapters  most  likely  to  prove 
valuable  for  your  purpose. 

6.  If  time  permits,  saturate  yourself  with  the  subject ;  that  is, 
read  thoughtfully  but  rapidly  to  gain  all  the  information  possible. 
You  need  to  know  much  more  about  the  subject  than  you  will 
have  time  or  space  to  tell  in  your  composition.  There  is  danger 
of  too  general  reading,  but  there  is  greater  danger  of  gathering  a 
few  disconnected  facts  to  be  written  down  in  a  composition  almost, 
if  not  quite,  in  the  author's  exact  words. 


ArrEXDIX  J{  xiii 

7.  Re-read  the  most  important  [jarts  of  the  book  or  article  and 
make  the  notes  for  your  composition.  Unless  the  article  or  the  chap- 
ter has  been  fully  outlined  by  the  author  at  the  beginning  or  by 
means  of  sideheadings,  it  will  be  necessary  sometimes  to  search  for 
the  topic.  This  is  not  always  a  disadvantage,  for  it  helps  to  show 
you  what  the  relation  of  the  parts  was  intended  to  be.  After  a  time 
you  will  find  it  comparatively  easy  to  take  your  notes  in  outline 
form  at  first ;  but  since  this  is  a  matter  of  practice,  and  the  outlines 
made  thus  far  have  been  brief  and  simple,  it  may  be  easier  to  write 
the  important  facts  in  the  form  of  catchwords.  Occasionally  you 
will  want  to  use  a  sentence  or  a  phrase  in  the  exact  words  of  the 
author.  This  is  allowable  if  you  remember  always  to  give  full 
credit  for  it,  cither  by  the  use  of  quotation  marks  or  by  the  addition 
of  the  author's  name.  You  must  take  care  not  to  present  the  ideas 
of  another  as  if  they  were  your  own.  Unless  you  give  proper  credit 
to  the  author,  you  are  guilty  of  a  form  of  dishonesty  known  as 
plagiarism,  which  is  simply  a  type  of  stealing.  As  a  rule,  quota- 
tions should  be  few  and  brief,  and  should  be  used  only  when  it 
seems  impossible  to  express  the  idea  in  any  other  suitable  way. 
Notes  should  contain,  besides  the  outline  and  the  quotations,  any 
conclusions  or  impressions  of  your  own.  These  will  be  particularly 
helpful  later  in  expanding  the  notes  and  outlines  into  a  composition. 

EXERCISES 

I 

State  exactly  what  books  or  magazines  you  would  read  to  collect 
material  for  compositions  on  the  following  subjects.^  Write  out 
composition  notes  on  any  three  of  the  subjects. 

1.  The  Wireless  Telegraph  (Telephone).  2.  The  Making  of  Pottery. 
3.  The  Roosevelt  Dam.  4.  Pasteur  and  his  Work.  5.  Haunts  of  Shake- 
speare. 6.  Government  by  Commission.  7.  Free  Verse.  8.  The  Initiative 
and  Recall.  9.  Education  of  the  Blind.  10.  The  Refining  of  Cottonseed 
Oil.  11.  The  Experimental  Theater  in  America.  12.  Excavations  at 
Pompeii.   13.  The  Countries  of  Europe  and  their  Present  Form  of  Gov- 

1  To  make  this  list  you  may  consult  the  catalogue  of  the  nearest  library  to 
see  what  books  and  magazines  are  available.  Examine  them  carefully  enough 
to  know  which  of  them  contain  really  valuable  material  for  your  use. 


xiv  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

ernment.  14.  The  Romans  as  Road  Builders.  15.  The  Present  Cabinet 
of  the  United  States.  16.  Radium  and  its  Uses.  17.  Luther  Burbank  and 
his  Work.  18.  Halley's  Comet.  19.  Petroleum  By-Products.  20.  The 
Passion  Play  of  Oberammergau. 

II 

Make  a  list  of  the  reference  books  which  contain  information  that 
will  enable  you  to  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  is  the  prevailing  religion  in  India  ?  2.  What  is  the  Rosetta 
Stone }  3.  Name  the  colleges  and  universities  of  California.  4.  How 
is  China  governed  ?  Who  is  the  present  ruler  ?  5.  Who  was  Prometheus  ? 
Dionysus  ?  6.  What  are  the  principal  exports  of  Jamaica  ?  7.  What  state 
in  the  Union  has  the  greatest  railway  mileage  ?  8.  What  nations  were 
represented  at  the  Disarmament  Conference  at  Washington  ?  9.  Who 
was  Florence  Nightingale?  10.  Who  wrote  "A  little  learning  is  a  dan- 
gerous thing"?  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  author's  life.  11.  Who  was 
Landseer  ?  For  what  was  he  famous  ?  12.  What  were  the  three  types  of 
ancient  Greek  architecture  ?  13.  Who  were  the  Druids  ?  14.  To  whom 
were  the  last  Nobel  Prizes  awarded  ?  For  what  achievements  ?  15.  Who 
were  Jubal  and  Orpheus  ?  16.  Give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  life  of  Beet- 
hoven. 17.  What  is  the  present  center  of  population  in  the  United 
States  ?  18.  What  are  the  child-labor  laws  of  your  state  ?  19.  What  are 
the  restrictions  on  immigration  in  the  United  States  ?  20.  Who  was 
Disraeli  ? 


APPENDIX  C 

VERSIFICATION 

Definition.  The  mechanical  process  of  poetic  composition  Is 
called  versification.    A  single  line  of  poetry  is  called  a  I'crsc. 

Rhythm.  Each  verse  in  a  poetic  composition  is  characterized 
by  a  uniform,  measured  movement  which  results  from  the  regular 
recurrence  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  This  character- 
istic, the  essential  quality  of  all  verse,  is  called  rhythm.  Rime, 
which  we  shall  consider  later,  often  occurs  in  verse,  but  it  is  not 
a  really  necessary  element.  Let  us  observe  the  difference  in  the 
movement  of  the  two  lines  that  follow : 

And  the  sheen  |  of  their  spears  |  was  like  stars  [  on  the  sea. 

Tell  me  |  not  in  [  mournful  |  numbers. 

Each  line,  we  notice,  is  divided  into  four  groups  of  syllables.  In 
the  first  line  there  are  three  syllables  in  each  group ;  in  the  second, 
two  syllables.    Each  group  of  syllables  is  called  a  foot. 

Kinds  of  feet.  The  character,  as  well  as  the  name,  of  a  poetic 
foot  is  determined  by  ( i )  the  number  of  syllables  in  the  foot  and 
(2)  the  position  of  the  accented,  or  stressed,  syllable.  The  four 
principal  kinds  of  feet  in  English  verse  are  the  following: 

The  iambic  foot,  consisting  of  an  unaccented  syllable  followed 
by  an  accented  syllable,  is  represented  thus :  ^  — .  The  following 
line  contains  iambic  feet : 

\j        vy     vy  —    vy       

And  then  |  my  heart  |  with  pleas  |ure  fills. 

The  trochaic  foot,  consisting  of  an  accented  syllable  followed  by 
an  unaccented  syllable,  is  represented  thus:  —  ^.  The  following 
line  is  composed  of  trochaic  feet : 

Ky  \_/       \J     v^ 

Lives  of  I  great  men  |  all  re 'mind  us. 


xvi  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  anapaestic  foot,  consisting  of  two  unaccented  syllables  fol- 
lowed by  an  accented  syllable,  is  represented  thus:  v^  ^— .  The 
following  line  contains  anapaestic  feet: 

^v^      wv-/      —  ^  \j         —     y         ^    — 

For  the  moon  \  never  beams  |  without  bring |mg  me  dreams. 

The  dactylic  foot,  consisting  of  an  accented  syllable  followed  by 
two  unaccented  syllables,  is  represented  thus :  _  ^  w .  The  fol- 
lowing line  is  composed  of  three  dactylic  feet  with  a  trochaic  foot  at 
the  end : 

Slowly  the  |  mist  o'er  the  |  meadow  was  |  creeping. 

In  addition  to  the  four  principal  feet  mentioned  above,  there  are 
two  other  types,  less  frequently  used : 

The  spondaic  foot,  consisting  of  two  accented  syllables,  is  rep- 
resented thus:  

The  pyrrhic  foot,  consisting  of  two  unaccented  syllables,  is 
represented  thus:  ^  ^^ . 

Spondaic  and  pyrrhic  feet  are  comparatively  rare  and  are  prac- 
tically never  used  alone. 

Variations  in  rhythm.  Certain  regular  variations  in  rhythm 
are  likely  to  be  found  in  verse,  and  unless  we  are  prepared  for  them 
the  verse  may  seem  irregular  and  confusing.  Often  a  line  may 
contain  two  or  more  different  kinds  of  feet.  The  following  varia- 
tions, in  particular,  should  be  noted : 

I.  Iambic  and  anapaestic  feet  are  likely  to  occur  in  the  same  line : 


And  this  |  was  the  rea|son  that,  long  |  ago, 
In  this  kingjdom  by  |  the  sea. 

These  lines  are  from  Poe's  ''Annabel  Lee,"  the  rhythm  of  which 
is  chiefly  anapaestic.    Yet  these  two  lines  contain  four  iambic  feet. 

The  following  line  is  from  Bryant's  "The  Death  of  the  Flowers," 
the  rhythm  of  which  is  chiefly  iambic : 

vy  \j  \J  \y  —        \^  KJ         —  ^ 

Till    fell  I  the    frost  ]  from   the    clear  |  cold   heavjen,    as    falls  |  the 
plague  I  on  men. 


APPENDIX  C  xvii 

2.  Trochaic  and  dactylic  feet  arc  likely  to  occur  in  the  same  line  : 

Bearded  with  |  moss,  and  with  |  garments  |  green,  indisjtinct  in  the  j 

—  Kj 
twilight. 

—  v^    vy^^  ^        — 

How  the  I  oriole's  |  nest  is  |  hung. 

3.  In  an  iambic  line  the  first  foot  is  often  trochaic: 

—  \y        \j    \^    —    \j  —  '^       — 

Daughters  |  of  time,  |  the  hyp|ocrit|ic  Days 

—  WW  —  w         —         w        —     \y  

Muffled  I  and  dumb  |  like  bare  |  foot  der|vishes. 

In  addition  to  these  regular  variations,  verse  is  often  written  with 
lines  ending  in  an  additional  unaccented  syllable  or  in  a  foot  of  one 
accented  syllable. 

w   —        \J      —  \y  V-'     \^ 

The  day  |  is  done,  |  and  the  dark|ness 

w  w     w       

Falls  from  |  the  wings  |  of  Night. 

W  w  .      w   

Laughed  the  |  brook  for  |  my  de|light. 
Through  the  |  day  and  |  through  the  |  night. 

Though  a  line  frequently  contains  different  kinds  of  feet,  one 
kind  usually  predominates  and  gives  its  name  to  the  line. 

Kinds  of  verse.  Different  lines  contain  different  numbers  of 
feet.  The  number  of  feet  in  a  line  determines  its  meter,  or  measure. 
English  poetry  includes  the  following  eight  kinds  of  lines : 

Monometer  line  (one  foot)  : 

I  trust. 

Dimeter  line  (two  feet) : 

W      W  

The  wild  [  winds  weep. 
Trimeter  line  (three  feet) : 

W     \J  W        

The  aultumn-time    has  come. 


xviii  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Tetrameter  line  (four  feet)  : 

\j w  —        \->  —  w  — 

He  lives  |  to  learn,  |  in  life's  |  hard  school. 

Pentameter  line  (five  feet)  : 

What  might  I  y  con  |  tests  rise  |  from  trivjial  things. 
Hexameter  line  (six  feet)  : 

This  is  the  I  forest  pri|meval;   the  |  murmuring  ]  pines  and  the  | 
hemlocks. 
Heptameter  line  (seven  feet)  : 

v,^w     \j       \y     y^  w   \y     \j      w         ^-y    —  w 

She  is  fair|er  than  earth,  |  and  the  sun  |  is  not  fairjer,  the  wind  |  is 
not  blith|er  than  she. 
Octametcr  line  (eight  feet)  : 

w  W  W  W       W         w  

In  the  I  Spring  a  |  young  man's  |  fancy  |  lightly  |  turns  to  [  thoughts 

W  

of  I  love. 

A  verse  is  named  according  to  the  number  of  feet  it  includes  and 
the  kind  of  foot  that  predominates.  In  describing  a  line,  therefore, 
we  should  first  tell  the  rhythm,  or  kind  of  feet,  and  then  the  meter, 
or  the  number  of  feet,  thus :  iambic  pentameter,  trochaic  tetrame- 
ter, dactylic  hexameter,  and  so  on. 

Scansion.  The  whole  process  of  indicating  the  rhythm  and  the 
meter  of  a  line  of  verse  is  called  scansion  or  scanning.  To  scan  a 
line  is  to  divide  it  into  its  constituent  feet,  to  mark  the  accented 
and  the  unaccented  syllables,  to  count  the  number  of  feet  and  state 
their  kind.  In  scanning  a  verse,  therefore,  we  indicate  its  metrical 
structure.  Scansion  may  be  marked  in  either  of  the  following  ways : 

W     W  \J  W        \J  

If  I  I  should  die  |  think  onjly  this  |  of  me. 

X     f  X  /x         /x/x         / 

If  I  I  should  die  |  think  onjly  this  |  of  me. 

Scansion  is  a  mechanical  process,  but  it  is  useful  in  helping  us  to 
appreciate  the  work  of  a  poet ;  for  poets,  besides  being  spiritually 
gifted,  are  skilled  in  metrical  composition. 


APPENDIX  C  xix 

Rime.  When  we  come  to  consider  j^roups  of  lines,  we  are  brought 
immediately  to  the  subject  of  rime.  Rime  may  be  defined  as  simi- 
larity of  sound  between  words,  especially  words  at  the  ends  of  lines. 
A  perfect  rime  recjuires  that  the  following  conditions  regarding 
riming  words  be  fulfilled  : 

1.  The  vowel  sounds  bearing  the  verse  stress  should  be  the  same. 

2.  The  consonants,  if  any,  preceding  the  vowels  should  be 
different. 

3.  The  consonant  sounds  following  the  vowels  should  be  the 
same. 

The  following  groups  of  words  meet  these  conditions  and  con- 
stitute perfect  rimes: 

park  greet  play  be  make  fate 

lark  meet  gay  sea  break  late 

Such  groups  as  the  following  are  sometimes  rimed,  but  they  are 
not  perfect  rimes : 

blood  dove  pen 

wood  move  been 

Such  groups  as  the  following  are  not  rimes  at  all : 

then  bent  bless 

send  bend  nest 

Such  identical  sounds  as  the  following  are  not  considered  rimes: 

weigh  rain  break  scene 

way  rein  brake  seen 

Couplets  and  stanzas.  A  group  of  two  consecutive  riming  lines 
is  called  a  couplet.  The  commonest  form  of  couplet  is  the  iambic 
pentameter,  often  called  the  heroic  couplet,  or  simply  the  riming 
couplet.  It  is  the  prevailing  form  of  verse  in  the  works  of  Pope  and 
several  other  eighteenth-century  writers.  It  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  lines  from  Pope : 

Know  then  thyself,  presume  not  God  to  scan ; 
The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. 


XX  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Another  common  couplet  is  the  iambic  tetrameter : 

The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his  fill, 
Where  danced  the  moon  on  Monan's  rill. 

A  third  familiar  couplet  is  the  trochaic  tetrameter : 

Blessings  on  thee,  little  man, 
Barefoot  boy,  with  cheek  of  tan ! 

A  group  of  more  than  two  riming  lines  is  called  a  stanza.  There 
are  a  great  variety  of  forms  of  the  stanza  in  English  verse,  but  we 
need  consider  only  a  few  in  this  brief  discussion.  A  common  form 
is  the  ballad  stanza,  made  up  of  four  iambic  lines,  alternating 
tetrameter  and  trimeter,  as  follows : 

John  Gilpin  was  a  citizen 

Of  credit  and  renown, 
A  train-band  captain  eke  was  he 

Of  famous  London  town. 

It  may  be  well  at  this  point  for  us  to  learn  the  way  of  indicating 
the  arrangement  of  the  rimes  in  a  stanza.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
called  the  rime  scheme.  It  is  indicated  by  the  first  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  the  same  letter  is  used  to  represent  rimes,  or  riming 
words.  Thus  the  preceding  ballad  stanza  would  be  represented  as 
follows:  abcb,  the  b's  denoting  the  rime.  Hereafter  rimes  will  be 
indicated  by  means  of  the  rime  scheme. 

A  second  familiar  stanza  is  the  iambic  tetrameter,  riming  abab. 
It  is  illustrated  by  the  following  lines  referring  to  Shakespeare : 

Yet  'twas  the  king  of  England's  kings ;  [a] 

The  rest  with  all  their  pomp  and  trains,  [6] 

Are  moldered,  half-remembered  things ;  [o] 

'Tis  he  alone  that  lives  and  reigns.  [6] 

Another  familiar  stanza  is  the  so-called  elegiac,  used  in  Gray's 
''Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard": 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene  [a] 

The  dark  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear:  [6] 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen,  [a] 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air.  [6] 


APPENDIX  C  xxi 

The  foregoing  stanzas  are  examples  of  the  quatrat)i,  or  stan/a  of 
four  Hnes  riming  alternately.  Besides  quatrains,  there  are  stanzas 
of  three,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  and  nine  lines.  A  good  example  of 
the  five-line  stanza  is  found  in  Lowell's  "An  Invitation"  : 

You  sought  the  new  world  in  the  old,  [a] 

I  found  the  old  world  in  the  new,  [6] 

All  that  our  human  hearts  can  hold,  [a] 

The  inward  world  of  deathless  mold,  [a] 

The  same  that  Father  Adam  knew.  [6] 

The  stanza  of  six  lines  is  used  in  Longfellow's  "Village  Black- 
smith,'' and  the  seven-line  stanza  in  "America."  A  stirring  stanza 
of  eight  lines  is  illustrated  by  Longfellow's  "Skeleton  in  .\rmor": 

Bright  in  her  father's  hall  [aj 

Shields  gleamed  upon  the  wall,  [c] 

Loud  sang  the  minstrels  all,  [a] 

Chanting  his  glory  ;  [6] 

When  of  old  Hildebrand  [c] 

I  asked  his  daughter's  hand.  [c] 

Mute  did  the  minstrels  stand  [c] 

To  hear  my  story.  [6] 

The  stanza  of  nine  lines,  known  as  the  Spenserian  stanza,  Keats 
employed  in  his  "Eve  of  St.  Agnes." 

Blank  verse.    A  great  deal  of  verse  does  not  contain  any  rime  at 
all.    Rhythm  is  essential  to  verse,  but  rime  is  not.    Neither  "Evan- 
geline" nor  "Hiawatha"  contains  rime.    Most  of  Shakespeare's 
works  are  not  in  rime ;  neither  is  Tennyson's  "Idylls  of  the  King,' 
nor  Bryant's  "Thanatopsis."    It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  rime  is 
not  an  essential  of  poetry.    The  term  blank  verse  is  used  loosely  to 
designate  any  unrimed  verse,  but  strictly  the  term  should  be  used 
in  reference  to  iambic  pentameter  lines  only.     "Thanatopsis"  is 
written  in  blank  verse,  though  "Evangeline"  is  not.    The  follow- 
ing blank-verse  lines  are  from  Tennyson's  "Morte  d'.\rthur"  : 
So  all  day  long  the  noise  of  battle  rolled 
Among  the  mountains  by  the  winter  sea, 
Until  King  Arthur's  table,  man  by  man. 
Had  fallen  in  Lyonnesse  about  their  lord. 


xxii  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Free  verse.  Free  verse  may  be  defined  as  rhythmical  poetry 
composed  without  regard  for  meter  or  rime.  The  following  lines 
from  Walt  Whitman  illustrate  free  verse : 

Sing  on  there  in  the  swamp, 

0  singer  bashful  and  tender,  I  hear  your  notes,  I  hear  your  call, 

1  hear,  I  come  presently,  I  understand  you. 

But  a  moment  I  linger,  for  the  lustrous  star  has  detain'd  me, 
The  star,  my  departing  comrade,  holds  and  detains  me. 

The  sonnet.  The  sonnet  is  a  complete  poem  consisting  of  four- 
teen iambic-pentameter  lines.  It  includes  two  distinct  types :  the 
Italian,  or  regular,  and  the  English,  or  Shakespearean.  The  Ital- 
ian sonnet  consists  of  two  parts:  the  first  eight  lines  constitute 
the  octave,  which  is  composed  of  two  quatrains ;  the  last  six  lines 
form  the  sestet.  The  rime  scheme  of  the  regular,  or  Italian,  son- 
net is  abba  abba  cde  cde,  or  the  sestet  may  rime  cdcdcd.  The  rime 
scheme  of  the  English,  or  Shakespearean,  sonnet  is  abab  cdcd  ejef 
gg.  The  couplet  at  the  end  is  felt  to  emphasize  the  thought  or  the 
emotion  expressed  in  the  preceding  lines.  Such  poets  as  Spenser, 
Milton,  Wordsworth,  Keats,  and  Rossetti  employed  the  sonnet  in 
various  modified  forms. 

The  following  sonnet  by  Longfellow,  called  "Nature,"  is  a  good 
example  of  the  Italian,  or  regular,  form: 

As  a  fond  mother,  when  the  day  is  o'er,  [a] 

Leads  by  the  hand  her  little  one  to  bed,  [6] 

Half  willing,  half  reluctant  to  be  led,  [6] 

And  leave  his  broken  playthings  on  the  floor,  [a] 

Still  gazing  at  them  through  the  open  door,  [a] 

Not  wholly  reassured  and  comforted  [6] 

By  promises  of  others  in  their  stead,  [6] 

Which,  though  more  splendid,  may  not  please  him  more;       [a] 

So  Nature  deals  with  us,  and  takes  away  [c] 

Our  playthings  one  by  one,  and  by  the  hand  [<i] 

Leads  us  to  rest  so  gently,  that  we  go  [e] 

Scarce  knowing  if  we  wish  to  go  or  stay,  [c] 

Being  too  full  of  sleep  to  understand  [<i] 

How  far  the  unknown  transcends  the  what  we  know.      [e] 


AIM'KXDIX  C  xxiii 

Kinds  of  poetry.  There  are  five  general  classes  of  poetry; 
namely,  narrative,  dramatic,  lyric,  descriptive,  and  didactic. 

1.  The  narrative  poem,  which  tells  a  story,  is  of  four  general 
kinds: 

a.  The  ipic  is  a  long  narrative  poem  dealing  impersonally  with 
celebrated  heroes  and  great  events,  usually  of  the  distant  past. 
Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Virgil's  ^.neid,  and  Milton's  "Paradise 
Lost"  are  the  best-known  epics. 

b.  The  romance  is  also  an  extensive  narrative  poem,  dealing  with 
historical  or  mythical  personages,  such  as  Charlemagne,  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  King  .Arthur. 

c.  The  tale  is  a  narrative  poem  of  moderate  length.  Scott's 
"Lady  of  the  Lake"  and  Longfellow's  "Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn" 
are  good  examples. 

d.  The  ballad  is  a  short  narrative  poem.  Ballads  were  originally 
chanted,  and  they  are  usually  composed  in  a  form  suitable  for  musi- 
cal accompaniment.  "John  (lilpin's  Ride"  and  "The  Wreck  of  the 
Hesperus"  are  good  examples  of  the  modern  ballad.  "Sir  Patrick 
Spens"  and  the  Robin  Hood  ballads  illustrate  the  earlier  type. 

2.  Dramatic  poetry  is  also  narrative,  but  it  is  designed  to  tell  a 
story  by  means  of  action  and  speech  and  is  therefore  usually  more 
vivid  than  nondramatic  narrative.  The  play,  or  drama,  is  usually 
in  verse,  though  modern  plays  are  often  written  entirely  in  prose. 
There  are  two  principal  forms  of  the  play — tragedy  and  comedy. 
In  genera],  a  tragedy  is  a  play  that  ends  unhappily,  whereas  a  com- 
edy is  a  play  that  ends  happily  (or,  at  least,  not  tragically).  Shake- 
speare's "^Macbeth"  and  "King  Lear"  are  tragedies;  his  "As  You 
Like  It"  and  "A  Midsummer  Xight's  Dream"  are  comedies.  Blank 
verse  is  the  metrical  form  employed  in  most  dramatic  poetry. 

3.  Lyric  poetry  expresses  the  personality  and  the  emotions  of 
the  author.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  word  lyre,  and  hence 
means  "singable."  Nearly  all  lyrics  are  short.  Lyric  poetry  is  of 
many  types.  All  love  songs,  patriotic  songs,  and  hymns  are  lyrics. 
So  also  are  elegies,  odes,  sonnets,  and  many  ballads.  Burns's  "  Bon- 
nie Doon,"  Newman's  "Lead.  Kindly  Light,"  Gray's  "Elegy  Writ- 
ten in  a  Country  Churchyard,"  and  Bryant's  "To  a  WaterfowF' 
are  all  lyric  poenxs. 


xxiv  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Descriptive  poetry  includes  pastorals  and  idyls.  Whittier's 
"Snow-Bound,"  Burns 's  "Cotter's  Saturday  Night,"  and  Milton's 
''L'AlIegro,"  "II  Penseroso,"  and  "Lycidas"  are  primarily  descrip- 
tive poems. 

5.  Didactic  poetry  includes  verse  compositions  that  are  reflective 
and  expository  in  nature.  Criticisms,  satires,  and  other  poems  that 
are  addressed  primarily  to  the  intellect  and  have  for  their  purpose 
the  imparting  of  instruction  belong  to  this  class.  Such  poems  as 
Pope's  "Essay  on  Criticism,"  Cowper's  "Task,"  Young's  "Night 
Thoughts,"  and  Wordsworth's  "Excursion"  are  examples  of  di- 
dactic poetry. 


APPENDIX  D 


A  LIST  OF  COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS 


Use  of  abbreviations.  As  a  general  rule,  abbreviations  should 
not  be  used  in  any  kind  of  jormal  writing.  A  few  exceptions  to  this 
rule  are  such  abbreviations  as  the  following :  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Messrs., 
M.,  M"",  M^^^.  and  St.,  preceding  proper  names;  Esq.,  Jr.,  Sr., 
M.D.,  A.B.,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  and  other  titles,  following  proper 
names;  No.  before  numerals;  and  B.C.  and  a.d.,  preceding  or 
following  dates. 

In  informal  writing  recognized  abbreviations  may  be  used,  but 
they  should  always  be  limited  to  those  that  will  be  immediately 
intelligible  to  the  reader. 

The  following  list  contains  the  common  abbreviations  and  their 
meanings : 


A.B.  or  B.A.  (Latin  Artiiim 
Baccalaureiis) :  Bachelor  of 
Arts. 

A.v.  (Latin  anno  Domini) :  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord. 

ad.  fin.  (Latin  ad  finem) :  at  the 
end. 

ad.  infin.  (Latin  ad  infinitum) 
infinity. 

ad.  lib.    (Latin    ad    libitum) : 
pleasure. 

C£t.  (Latin  aetatis) :  aged. 

A.L.A.:  American  Library  Asso- 
ciation. 

A.  M.  (Latin  ante  meridiem)  :  be- 
fore noon. 

A.  M.  or  M.  A.  (Latin  Artium  Ma- 
gister)  :  Master  of  Arts. 


to 


at 


Anon.:  anonymous. 

A.  S.:  Anglo-Saxon. 
Bart.:  Baronet. 

bbl.  (plural  bbls.):  barrel. 
B.C.:  before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L.:  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.D.:  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
B.Mus.  or  Miis.B.:  Bachelor  of 

Music. 

B.S.  or  B.Sc:   Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence. 

c.  or  ca.  (Latin  circa)  :  about. 

C.E.:  Civil  Engineer. 

cf.  (Latin  confer)  :  compare. 

ch.  or  chap.:  chapter. 

C.  O.D.:  cash  (or  collect)  on  de- 

livery. 
con.  (Latin  contra)  :  against. 


XXVI 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


c.p.:  chemically  pure;   also  can- 
dle power. 

C.  P.  A.:  Certified  Public  Account- 

ant. 

d.  (Latin  denarius)  :  penny;  pence. 
D.A.R.:  Daughters  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution. 

D.  C.  L.:  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.D.:  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
D.D.S.:  Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 
gery. 

do.:  ditto. 

Dr.:  Doctor ;  debtor. 
ed. :  edition ;  editor. 
E.E.T.S.:   Early   English   Texts 
Society. 

e.  g.   (Latin  exempli  gratia) :   for 

example. 
Esq.:  Esquire. 

et  al.  (Latin  et  alii)  :  and  others. 
et  seq.   (Latin  et  sequens)  :   and 

the  following. 
etc.    (Latin   et   cetera) :    and   so 

forth. 
/.  or  ^.;  following. 
Fahr.:  Fahrenheit. 
/.  0.  b.:  free  on  board. 

F.  R.  S.  :  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 

ciety. 

G.  A.  R.:  Grand  Army  of  the  Re- 

public. 
Gen.:  General. 
Gov.:  Governor. 

H.M.S.:  His   Majesty's  Service. 
Hon,:  Honorable. 
h.  p. :  horse  power. 
ibid.  (Latin  ibidem):  in  the  same 

place. 
id.  (Latin  idem)  :  the  same. 


i.  e.  (Latin  id  est)  :  that  is. 

inc.:  incorporated. 

itist.  (Latin  mense  instante)  :  in- 
stant, the  present  month. 

J.  D.  (Latin  Jurum  Doctor)  :  Doc- 
tor of  Laws. 

J.  P.:  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.:  Junior. 

/.  (plural  //.) :  line. 

lb.  (plural  lbs.) :  pound. 

/.  c:  lower  case  (small  letter). 

L.  H.  D.  (Latin  Litterarum  Hu- 
maniorum  Doctor)  :  Doctor  of 
the  Humanities. 

Lit.  D.  or  Litt.  D.  (Latin  Lit- 
terarum Doctor) :  Doctor  of 
Letters. 

LL.  B.  (Latin  Legum  Baccalau- 
reus)  :  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.  (Latin  Legum  Doctor)  : 
Doctor  of  Laws. 

loc.  cit.  (Latin  loco  citato)  :  in  the 
place  previously  cited. 

Ltd.:  limited. 

M.  (Latin  meridies)  :  noon. 

M.  (French;  plural  MM.):  Mon- 
sieur. 

M.  (Latin  mille)  :  thousand. 

M.  C:  Member  of  Congress. 

M.  D.  (Latin  Medicitiae  Doctor)  : 
Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.E.:  Mechanical  Engineer;  Min- 
ing Engineer;  Middle  English; 
Methodist  Episcopal. 

Mgr.:  Manager. 

M.L.A.:  Modern  Language  As- 
sociation. 

j^^He  (French)  :  Mademoiselle. 

M'«*  (French)  :  Madame. 


APPENDIX  D 


XXVI 1 


M.P.:  Member  of  Parliament. 

MS.    (plural  MSS.):   manuscript. 

M.S.:  Master  of  Science. 

N.  B.  (Latin  nota  bene)  :  note 
well ;  take  notice ;  bear  in 
mind. 

A^.  E.  A.:  National  Educational  As- 
sociation. 

A^.  E.  D.:  New  English  Dictionary. 

lion.  seq.  (Latin  non  seqiiitur)  :  it 
does  not  follow. 

N.P.:  Notary  Tuhlic. 

O.E.D.:  Oxford  English  Diction- 
ary. 

op.  cit.  (Latin  opus  citato)  :  the 
work  previously  cited. 

Oxon.  (Latin  Oxonia)  :  Oxford. 

oz.:  ounce  or  ounces. 

p.  (plural  pp.) :  page. 

Ph.  B.  (Latin  Philosophiae  Bacca- 
laureus) :  Bachelor  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

Ph.D.  (Latin  Philosophiae  Doc- 
tor) :  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

pinx.  (Latin  pinxit) :  he  painted  it. 

/'.  M.  (Latin  post  meridiem):  af- 
ternoon. 

P.  M.:  Postmaster. 

P.  P.  C.  (French  Pour  prendre 
conge)  :  to  take  leave. 

pro.  tern.  (Latin  pro  tempore)  : 
for  the  time  being. 

prox.  (Latin  proximo)  :  next 
month. 

P.  S.  ( Latin  post  scriptum)  :  post- 
script. 


pseud. :  pseudonym ;  assumed 
name. 

Q.  E.  D.  (Latin  quod  erat  demon- 
strandum) :  which  was  to  be 
proved. 

q.v.  (Latin  quod  vide):  which 
sec. 

R.F.D.:  Rural  Free  Delivery. 

R.G.S.:  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety. 

R.S.V.P.  (French  Repondcz  s'il 
vous  plait):  please  reply;  re- 
ply, if  you  please. 

sc:   scene. 

sc.  (Latin  scilicet) :  namely. 

s.  g.:  specific  gravity. 

sic  (Latin) :  thus. 

S.P.C.A.:  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  .Animals. 

sq.  (Latin  scquens)  :  the  follow- 
ing. 

Sr.:  Senior. 

St.:  stanza. 

S.T.D.  (Latin  5(7rrae  Theologiae 
Doctor)  :  Doctor  of  Sacred 
Theology. 

ult.  (Latin  ultimo)  :  last  month. 

U.S.M.:  United  States  Mail. 

U.S.N.:  United  States  Navy. 

V.  (plural  vv.):  verse. 

vid.  or  V.  (Latin  vide)  :  see,  con- 
sult. 

viz.  (Latin  videlicet)  :  namely. 

v.s.  (Latin  vide  supra):  see 
above. 

vs.   (Latin  versus)  :   against. 


APPENDIX  E 
MARKS  USED  IN  CORRECTING  COMPOSITIONS 

Use  of  correction  marks.  If  a  teacher's  criticism  of  a  composi- 
tion is  to  prove  of  any  value  to  us,  we  must  know  how  to  interpret 
the  marks  used  in  correcting  our  paper  and  understand  accurately 
the  nature  of  each  error.  From  the  following  list  of  marks  and 
from  the  proper  sections  of  the  text  we  shall  be  able  to  get  this 
necessary  information. 

GRAMMAR 

Gr.        Violation  of  a  rule  of  grammar. 
Tn.        Wrong  tense  of  the  verb. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Bal.       Lack  of  balance  in  the  sentence. 

CI.         Lack  of  clearness. 

Cst.        An  unspecified  error  in  sentence  construction. 

C.  F.      Comma  fault  (section  171)  :  the  use  of  a  comma  to  separate  two 

distinct  sentences. 
K  Awkward  sentence  structure. 

P.  F.      Period  fault  (section  170) :  the  unwarranted  use  of  a  phrase  or  a 

dependent  clause  as  a  complete  sentence. 
Pll.        A  violation  of  parallel  construction  (section  173). 
Ptc.       Faulty  reference  of  a  participle  (section  159). 
Pt.  V.     A  violation  of  point  of  view  (section  174). 
Ref.       Faulty  reference  of  a  pronoun  (section  150). 
S.  C.      A  violation  of  sentence  coherence  (section  121). 
S.  E.      A  violation  of  sentence  emphasis  (section  122). 
S.  U.      A  violation  of  sentence  unity  (section  120). 
Tr.         Transpose  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  to  a  better  position  in 

the  sentence. 


APPEXDIX  E  xxix 

SPELLING 

Sp.  An  error  in  spellinR  (sections  338-340). 

Syl.  Wrong  syllabic  division  of  a  word  (section  336). 

O  Write  as  one  word  without  a  hyphen. 

Dy.  Consult  a  dictionary  (section  225). 

DICTION 

D.  An  error  in  diction  (sections  177  and  186). 
Id.  A  violation  of  idiom  (section  218). 

Wd.  Wordiness  ;  condense. 

Wk.  Diction  weak  or  colorless  (section  206). 

Coll.  Diction  too  colloquial  (section  180,  i). 

Rep.  Objectionable  repetition  (section  207). 

Fig.  Faulty  fiRure  of  speech  (section  IQ4). 

F.  IV.  "Fine  writing":  affected  or  inappropriate  diction  (section  212). 

PUXCTU.\TION 

P.  An  error  in  punctuation  (sections  1 26-141). 

Cap.  Use  a  capital  letter  (section  143). 

/.  c.  Use  a  small  (lower  case)  letter. 

Ital.  Use  italics  (section  142). 

MISCELLANEOUS  MARKS 

MS.  Manuscript  poorly  arranged,  untidy,  or  illegible. 

C.  /.  Consult  the  instructor. 

U.  Lack  of  unity  in  the  paragraph  (sections  85-89). 

C.  Lack  of  coherence  in  the  paragraph  (sections  go-08). 

E.  Lack  of  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  (sections  99-100). 
Tf  Indent ;  begin  a  paragraph  here. 

I?  Should  a  paragraph  begin  here? 

No  ^  Do  not  begin  a  new  paragraph. 

?  A  doubtful  statement. 

X  An  unspecified  obvious  error. 

A  Necessary  word  or  words  omitted  (section  165). 

B  Omit  unnecessary  word  or  words. 

/  Divide  a  word  or  a  sentence. 

#  Leave  more  space  between  words  or  sentences. 


APPENDIX  F 
MARKS  USED  IN  PROOFREADING 

Proofreaders'  marks.  To  call  attention  to  errors  in  a  printers' 
proof  special  marks  and  symbols  are  used  in  the  margin  at  a  point 
opposite  the  line  in  which  the  mistake  occurs.  Proofreaders'  marks 
should  never  be  inserted  between  the  printed  lines  of  a  proof,  but 
each  should  be  accompanied  by  an  appropriate  mark  in  the  printed 
line  to  show  where  the  correction  is  to  be  made.  The  following 
marks  are  commonly  used : 

y^  Take  out  (Latin  dele) ;  omit. 

C^  Turn  an  inverted  letter  to  right  position. 

IS:  A  space  or  more  space  between  letters  or  words. 

/___  Carry  a  word  or  a  line  farther  to  the  left. 

/  Carry  a  word  or  a  line  farther  to  the  right. 

/ — J  Raise  a  letter  or  a  word  sunk  below  the  proper  level. 

I — i  Lower  a  letter  or  a  word  raised  above  the  proper  level. 

»j>  Push  down  the  lead  which  shows  with  the  type. 

O  Take  out  space  and  close  up. 

^  Take  out  a  letter  or  letters  and  close  up. 

'^  Print  as  a  single  character;  as,  ae  =  ae. 

^  Make  a  new  paragraph. 

cfe  ^  No  paragraph  needed  here. 

4ti^  Let  the  word  or  words  crossed  out  remain  as  at  first.    (Dots  are 
placed  under  these  words.) 

//  Type  margin  uneven;  straighten  it. 

;:::=r  Straighten  line  or  lines. 

X.  A  broken  letter. 

/s  Marks  the  point  within  the  line  where  an  insertion  is  to  be  made. 

=  Insert  a  hyphen  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 

O  Insert  a  period  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 


APPENDIX  r  xxxi 

>  Insert  a  comma  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 

X^  Insert  quotation  marks  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 

V  Insert  apostrophe  or  single  quotation  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 

CaJt-  Use  a  capital. 

<l.  CiU<f.  Use  small  capitals. 

/ .  Use  small  (lower  case)  letters,  not  capitals. 

IjJ_  Wrong  font  (wrong  size  or  style  of  type;. 

I^t^  Transpose  word  or  words. 

cLjiJ-  Use  italic  type. 

A-^y*  Use  roman  type. 

(Ui^  VV'ords  omitted.    See  copy  (author's  manuscript). 

^A^  Insert  a  lead  (a  thin  metal  strip)  to  widen  the.  space  between  lines. 

/  A  query  as  to  spelling,  e.xactness  of  quotation,  etc. 

^  Print  in  CAPITAL  letters. 

^:=-  Print  in  small  capital  letters. 

Print  in  italic  letters. 

-*'*-*-'  Print  in  bold-faced  type  letters. 

^=.  Print  in  BOLD-FACED  CAPITAL  letters. 

'^^-  Print  in  bold-faced  small  capital  letters. 

^^""—^  Print  in  hold-faced  italic  letters. 

Printed  below  is  a  specimen  of  corrected  proof  showing  nearly 
all  the  proofreaders'  marks. ^ 

SHORTHAND  UNDER  THE  CAESARS_/    ^/UrCtk' 
Plutarch  mention^the  speech  on  the  con-  :^ 
spiracy  of  Catiline  as  th  (tjOly  one  of  Cato  x/-^ 
the  Younger's  speeches  that  has  been  pr^ 
served,    on  the  day  that  Cato  made  it  Cicero 
had  disposed  in  various  parts  of  the  Senate 
several  of  the  most  expert  rapid  writers 
.   77i//who^'hc  had  taught  "to  make  figures  com-  i^- 
'    Drisine   numerous   words   in  Oew/a)  short       /^^ 


cy 


pnsmg 
^The  following  passage  was  published  in  the  Youth's  Companion. 


xxxii  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

—  strokes!^  Plutarch  adds  that  it  was  thea  ^^)    , 
tical  use  of  the  art^^p  '/ 


c/^  V*  ii  But  a^rding  to  a  writer  in  the  Century    ,^^^z^^ 
'-/-/  Magazine  the  earhest  use  an  abbreviated     ^/ 

,  form  of  writing  goes  back  to  200  b.c,  when       ' 
^^i;^^  thp  Roman  pop>  Quintus  Ennius  used  a  sys- 

Item  of  eleven  hun_dred  signs  that^devised.  ^/  '^ 


^2     Tir^the  reporter;^the  orations  of  Cicero,  was   ?/  w^/ 
'^     in  early  life  a  slave,  but,  having  acquired  an  /    // 
education,  he  found  favor  with  his  master, 
who  gave  him  his  freedom  and  made  him  his    <^ 
secretary  and  confidant.    Tiro  was  eviden^    yC/ 
a  capable  stenographer,  for  j3nce  during  his     '  a<^- 
C(^-  absence  from  jome  Cicero  wrote  to  a  friend 
>,    complain/ing  that  his  work  was  delayed  be    =/ 
cause,  whereas  he  had  been(3yableydictate     A^ 
to  Tiro  in  periods,  he  n6~w  had  to  dictate  to  C^ 
y    others  in  syllables. 

[_      |_  The^ystem  of  pothooks  that  Tiro  in-  y^c. 
vented  came  to  be  known  as  the  Tironian 
Notes  and  was  the  basis  of  all  the  shorthand  nZ 
used  during  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire 
CaS^.  and  the  dark  ages.    It  was,  however,  merely 

a  system  of  ideographs,. hundred  of  different   -^^y 
characters  that  had  to  be  laboriously  memo- 
rized. Shorthand^ystems  baMd  on  phonetic   Z^./yC^ 
-(fyy.  charact(f)§s  were  not^vented  until/after  the      ^/-^ 
(^^,    _reformation. 


INDEX 


[References  arc  to  pagrs.    Roman  numerals  designate  pages  in  titr  Appendixes.] 


Abbreviations,  common,  xxv-xxvii 

Action,  essential  in  narration,  346; 
rising,  447 ;  falling,  447 ;  envelop- 
ing, 440-45° 

Adjective  clauses,  173-174 

Adjective  phrases,  161 

Adjectives,  466-469;  use,  259-262, 
469;  kinds,  466-467;  comparison, 
467-469;  parsing,  469 

Adverbial  clauses,  174-176;  misused 
for  noun  clauses,  281-282 

Adverbial  objective,  462 

Adverbial  phrases,  161-162 

Adverbs,  470-471;  conjunctive,  174- 
176,  470;  kinds,  470;  comparison, 
471 ;  parsing,  471 

Analysis  of  a  sentence,  4S5-486 

Anapa;stic  foot,  xvi 

Anecdotes,  353-^54 

Antecedent,  definition  of,  462 

Antithesis,  323 

Antonyms,  335,  343 

Apostrophe,  in  possessive,  238;  in 
plural  of  letters  and  figures,  238; 
in  contractions,  238-239 

Apostrophe,  figure  of  speech,  323 

Apposition,  noun  clause  in,  172  ;  punc- 
tuation of  appositive  expressions, 
212-213;  case  of  appositive  nouns 
and  pronouns,  254,  461-462 

Archaic  words,  207 

Argument,  2;  definition  of,  415;  con- 
viction in,  416;  persuasion  in,  416; 
kinds  of,  416;  informal,  417-421; 
formal,  421-432 

As,  254,  260,  277,  299 

As  if,  277 

Asterisks,  239 

Atherton,  Gertrude,  381,  383-384 

Attention,  devices  for  keeping,  28,  29 

Author's  background,  i 

Autobiography,  354,  361-362 

Auxiliary  verbs,  472 


Hacon,  Sir  Francis,  5 

Hailey,  L.  H.,  146-147 

Barbarisms,  294-295 

Barnes,  N.  \V.,  4 

Barrett,  C.  R.,  445 

Biography,  354,  360-361;  expository, 

405-407 
Boas,  Ralph  Philip,  397-398 
Bok,  Edward,  354 
Brackets,  234 
Brief,  416,  427-432;  model,  420-431; 

development  into  argument,  431- 

432 
"Brooklyn  Bridge  at  Dawn,"  48 
Brown,  R.  W.,  4 
Bruce,  H.  Addincton,  146,  151 
Burke,  Edmund,  155 
Burroughs,  John,  58-60 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.,  12,  13 

Capital  letters,  for  first  word  of  sen- 
tence, 242 ;  first  word  of  line  of 
poetry,  242 ;  first  word  of  direct 
question,  242 ;  proper  nouns  and 
proper  adjectives.  242-243 ;  names 
of  days  and  months,  243 ;  sections 
of  country,  243;  common  nouns  in 
proper  names,  243-244;  titles  of 
honor  or  office,  244;  titles  of  fam- 
ily relationship,  244;  literary  titles, 
244 ;  words  naminc  or  referring  to 
Deity,  244-245 ;  names  of  school 
classes,  245  ;  /  and  0,  245  ;  personi- 
fication, 24s 

Caret,  230 

Carver,  Thomas  Nixon.  418-419 

Case,  253-255.  400-461 

"Cask  of  Amontillado,  The,"  436- 
442 

Clauses,  in  compound  sentences,  166- 
167 ;  noun,  171-172 ;  adjective,  173- 
174;  adverbial,  174-176;  incorrect 
use  of  dependent,  182,  2S2-2S3 


XXXIV 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Clearness,  of  thought,  14-22 ;  of 
speech,  22-24;  importance  of,  in 
exposition,  388-389 

Climax,  in  sentence,  202 ;  figure  of 
speech,  325;  in  short  story,  434 

Cognate  object,  462 

Coherence,  law  of,  75-78;  in  para- 
graph, 140-151;  secured  by  con- 
necting words  and  phrases,  150- 
151;  in  sentences,  195-199;  in  sim- 
ple narration,  350;  in  description, 

370-371 

Colloquialisms,  295 

Colon,  in  formal  statements,  225; 
long  quotations,  225  ;  lists  of  items, 
225;  explanation  or  illustration, 
225;   formal  salutations,  225 

Comma,  in  direct  address,  212;  ap- 
position, 212-213;  series,  213;  in- 
troductory words,  phrases,  clauses, 
213-214;  parenthetical  expressions, 
214;  nonrestrictive  phrases  and 
clauses,  214-215  ;  coordinate  clauses, 
215-216;  quotations,  direct  and  in- 
direct, 216-217;  omission  of  words, 
217;  limiting  or  identifying  words, 
217;  mild  interjections,  218;  for 
greater  clearness,  218 

Comma  fault,  191,  216,  283-284 

Comparison,  expressions  of,  259- 
260;    adjectives,  467-469;  adverbs, 

471 

Composition,  definition  of,  1-2  ;  units, 
2  ;  kinds,  2  ;  sources  of  material,  2  ; 
essentials  of  effective,  2-3 ;  reasons 
for  studying,  3-4;  original,  67; 
planning  an  original,  68;  require- 
ments of  a  good,  68;  choice  and 
limitation  of  subject,  68-6g ;  choice 
of  title,  69-70;  point  of  view,  70- 
72;  selection  of  material,  72-74; 
arranging  material  by  means  of  out- 
line, 74-79;  unity,  74-75;  coher- 
ence, 75-78;  emphasis,  78-79;  form 
of  an  outHne,  70 ;  development 
from  outline,  86-91 ;  beginning,  91- 
92  ;  ending,  92-93  ;  transitions  be- 
tween paragraphs,  94-95 ;  revision, 
95-98 

Composition,  oral:  definition  of,  i; 
importance  of,  8;  practice  in,  8-9; 
qualities   necessary    for   successful. 


10,  14,  22,  24,  26;  topics  for,  10- 
11;  compared  with  written,  32-33 

Composition,  written:  definition  of, 
i;  compared  with  oral,  32-33; 
proper  form  for,  33-36;  require- 
ments, 36-37 

Condensation,  51-61 

Conjugation,  473;  regular,  new,  or 
weak,  478 ;  irregular,  old,  or  strong, 
478 

Conjunctions,  484-485;  kinds,  484- 
485;  parsing,  485 

Conjunctive  adverbs,  174-176,  470 

Connectives,  150-151,  166-167 

Connotation,  319 

Coordination,  in  an  outline,  79;  in 
sentence,  198-199;  faulty,  285-287 

Copulative  verbs,  473 

Correctness  of  speech,  24-26 

Couplet,  xix-xx 

Criticisms,  407-410 

Dactylic  foot,  xvi 

Dash,  change  in  construction  of  sen- 
tence, 231 ;  parenthetical  expressions, 
231;  summarizing,  231;  dramatic 
effect,  232;  omissions,  232;  with 
other  marks,  232;  references,  232 

Debating,  value  of,  421 ;  subjects  for, 
421-422  ;  wording thequestion, 422  ; 
exposition  of  the  question,  423; 
definition  of  terms,  423-424;  con- 
flict of  opinion,  424;  proof,  425; 
refutation,  426;  burden  of  proof, 
426;  persuasion  in,  426-427;  brief 
for,  427-431 ;  development  of  brief, 
431-432 

Definitions,  390-394 

Denotation,  319 

Denouement,  447 

Description,  2  ;  definition  of,  365  ;  ex- 
pository, 365-366;  artistic,  366; 
unity  in,  366-367;  point  of  view, 
367-368;  singleness  of  impression, 
368-370;  fundamental  image,  370; 
coherence,  370-371 ;  emphasis,  371 ; 
vividness,  371 ;  of  a  place,  375-378 ; 
of  an  object,  378-380;  of  an  ani- 
mal, 380-381 ;  of  a  person,  382- 
385 ;  by  effect,  385-386 

Dialogue,  in  narration,  353 ;  in  short 
story,  450 


INDEX 


XXXV 


Diaries,  360 

Diction,  293-204;  common  errors, 
298-315;  effectiveness,  316-332; 
exactness,  316-317;  appropriate- 
ness, 317-318;  expressiveness,  319- 
326;  violations  of  effectiveness, 
327-330 

Dictionary,  importance  of  study  of, 
330;  unabridycd,  339-340,  34i- 
344;  abridged,  340;  information 
about  words,  341-343 

Diffemit  than,  301 

Ditiressions.  avoidance  of.  138-130 

Discussions  of  facts  and  ideas, 397-400 

Don't,  252 

Double  nefiativcs,  281 

Double  subjects  and  objects,  281 

Drama,  study  of,  iv-v 

Editorials,  newspaper,  410-413 

Effectiveness  of  diction,  316-332; 
exactness,  316-317;  appropriate- 
ness, 317-310;  expressiveness,  310- 
327;  violations  of,  327-331 

Eikenberry,  W.  L.,  12,  13 

Else,  259 

Emphasis,  law  of,  78-79 ;  in  the  para- 
graph, 152-153;  in  sentences,  201- 
203;  in  simple  narration,  350-351; 
in  description,  371 

Emulation,  value  of,  in  improving 
composition,  37-38 

English  laniiuage,  as  a  tool,  5:  self- 
cultivation  in,  6;  sources  of, 292-293 

Epigram,  324 

Errors  in  diction,  208-315 

Essay,  400-405 ;  formal,  401  ;  infor- 
mal, 401-404;  study  of,  v-vi 

Euphemism,  326 

Euphony  in  sentences,  204-206 

Exaggeration,  328 

Examinations,  60-61 

Exclamation  mark,  with  words,  229; 
phrases,  229;  sentences,  229;  inter- 
jections, 230 

Expansion,  62-63 ;  value  of,  63 

Experience  provides  material  for  nar- 
ration, 352 

Explanations  of  processes,  394-397 

Expletives:  it,  466;  there,  470 

Exposition,  2;  definition  of,  388;  im- 
portance of  clearness  in,  388-389; 


necessity  for  outline,  389;  oral, 
380-390 ;  melhodi,  390 ;  kinds,  390- 
413;  in  letters,  413-414;  in  argu- 
ment, 415 

Fables,  19-20,  46-47 

Feet,  kinds  of,  xv-xvi 

Fiction,  types  of  prose,  ii ;  study  of,  ii 

Figurative  language,  overuse  of,  329- 

330 
Figures  of  speech,  321-326;  suggestive 

value  of,  320-321 
"  Fine  writing,"  330 
Forbes,  W.  Cameron,  141,  147 
Form,  in  written  composition,  33-36; 

in  letters,  104-106,  124-126 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  30-40 
Fundamental    image    in    description, 

370 

Gender,  256,  458,  465 

Gerund,  definition  of,  477;  reference, 
275-276.   See  Verbal  noun 

Gerund  phrase,  160,  106-197 

Good  form  in  composition,  3 

Good  use,  requirements  of,  294 ;  vio- 
lations of,  204-315 

Grammar,  cautions:  agreement  of 
subject  with  predicate,  249-253; 
compound  subject,  249-250;  nouns, 
250-252;  pronouns,  251-252;  ad- 
jectives, 251-252;  don't  and  was, 
252  ;  nouns  and  pronouns,  253-259; 
case,  253-255;  number  of  nouns 
and  pronouns.  255 ;  agreement  of 
relative  pronouns,  256;  reference 
of  pronouns,  256-259;  adjectives 
and  adverbs,  250-263;  comparison 
of  adjectives  and  adverbs.  259-260; 
confusion  in  use  of  adjectives  and 
adverbs,  260-261;  demonstratives, 
262;  verbs,  263-274;  principal 
parts  of  verbs.  263-264;  transitive 
and  intransitive  verbs,  264-266; 
shall,  will,  should,  would,  266-271  ; 
tense,  266-273;  subjunctive  mood, 
273;  participles,  verbal  nouns,  in- 
finitives, 274-277;  split  infinitive, 
276;  prepositions.  277;  conjunc- 
tions, 277-278;  miscellaneous,  27S- 
282 

Grammar,  definition  of,  2 


XXXVl 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Grammar,  review:  parts  of  speech, 
457-485;  nouns,  457-462;  pro- 
nouns, 462-466;  parsing,  462,  466, 
469,  471,  483,  484,  485;  adjectives, 
466-469;  adverbs,  470-471;  verbs, 
471-483;  prepositions,  483-484; 
conjunctions,  484-485;  interjec- 
tions, 485 ;  directions  for  sentence 
analysis,  485-486 

Greenough,  C.  N.,  135-136,  296 

Guiterman,  Arthur,  47 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  366-367,  379- 

380 
Hexameter,  xviii 
Hill,  Howard  Copeland,  57-58,  144, 

145,  148 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  149 
Hyperbole,  324-325 
Hyphen,  239 

Iambic  foot,  xv 

Idioms,  334-335 

Imagination  provides  details  for  nar- 
ration, 353 

Imitation,  value  of,  in  improving 
composition,  37-38 

Improprieties,  296 

Infinitive,  reference  of,  196-197,  276; 
subject  or  complement  of,  254; 
perfect  for  present,  272;  split,  276; 
definition  of,  477 

Infinitive  phrase,  160 

Interjections,  485 

Intransitive  verbs,  472-473 

Irony, 325 

Irving,  Washington,  153,  373-374 

Italics,  239;  in  titles,  240;  for  em- 
phasis, 240;  sideheadings,  240; 
foreign  words,  240;  words,  letters, 
and  figures,  241 ;  names  of  ships,  241 

Johnson,  Samuel,  187 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  144-145 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L.,  144-14S 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  43 

Kittredge,   George   Lyman,   135-136, 

296 
Knowledge  of  subject,  10 

Lamb,  Charles,  134-135,  401 
Lay,  264-265,  303 


Le  Gallienne,  Richard,  48 

Letters,  kinds  of,  104;  form  of,  104- 
106;  parts  of,  106-111 ;  qualities  of 
friendly,  111-112;  subject  matter 
of  friendly,  112;  paragraph  ar- 
rangement in,  116-117;  informal 
notes,  120-122;  formal  notes,  122- 
124;  form  of  business,  124-126; 
qualities  of  business,  126-128;  of 
appHcation,  128;  narration  in,  359; 
expository,  413-414 

Letter-writing,  importance  of,  104 

Library,  card  catalogue,  viii;  refer- 
ence books,  viii-xi;  use  of,  xii-xiii 

Lie,  264-265,  303 

Like,  277-278,  304 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  38-39,  114 

Linn,  James  Weber,  136  , 

London,  Jack,  373 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  151,  153 

Marks,  in  correcting  compositions, 
xxviii-xxix;  in  proofreading,  xxx- 
xxxii 

Mastery  of  English  language  as  a 
tool,  5 

Material,  selection  of,  72-73;  for  nar- 
ration, 352-353 

Matthews,  Brander,  154 

Merwin,  Henry  C,  137 

Metaphor,  321-322 

Meter,  xvii-xviii 

Metonymy,  324 

Mills,  Enos  A.,  134,  148-149 

Mood,  subjunctive,  273,  476;  defini- 
tion of,  475;  indicative,  475;  im- 
perative, 476 

Munro,  William  Bennett,  409 

Myers,  Philip  Van  Ness,  54 

Narration,  2 ;  simple,  definition  of, 
345;  essentials,  345-348;  unity, 
348-350;  coherence,  350;  emphasis, 
350-351;  oral,  351-352;  material 
for,  352-353  ;  dialogue,  353  ;  types, 
353;  in  letters,  359 

Negatives,  double,  281 

Neilson,  William  Allan,  141-142 

News  stories,  356-358 

Norris,  Frank,  369 

Notes,  informal,  120 ;  formal,  122-123 

Note-taking,   53-55 


INDEX 


XXXVll 


Noun  clauses,  1 71-172 

Noun  phrases,  161 

Nouns,    457-462;     kinds,     457-458; 

properties,  458-401 ;  uses,  461-462 ; 

parsing,  462 
Novel,  study  of,  ii-iii 
Number,  255,  459-460,  473 

Object,  direct,  472;  indirect,  472 

Obsolete  words,  207 

Omission  of  words,  278-281 

Onomatopoeia,  325 

Other,  259 

Outlines,  16-18,  74;  value  in  plan- 
ning a  composition,  16;  mode!?, 
17-18;  importance  of,  in  condens- 
ing, 56-57;  form,  79;  development 
into  composition,  86-91 ;  in  ex- 
position, 389 

Painter,  F.  V.  N.,  134,  137,  143-144 

Palmer,  George  Herbert,  7 

Paragraphs,  transitions  between,  04- 
95;  definition  of,  131;  indentation, 
131;  detailed  study  of,  131-153; 
length,  132;  requirements  of,  132- 
153;  unity,  133-140;  coherence, 
140-151;  emphasis,  152-153;  tran- 
sitional, 155 

Parallel  construction,  199,  287-288 

Parentheses,  in  explanatory  expres- 
sions, 233-234;  with  figures  and 
letters,  234 

Participial  phrases,  160,196-197,  274- 
27s 

Participles,  reference,  196-197,  274- 
275;  definition  of,  477 

Parts  of  speech,  in  dictionary,  342  ; 
definition  of,  457;  nouns,  457-462; 
pronouns,  462-466;  adjectives,  466- 
469;  adverbs,  470-471 ;  verbs,  471- 
483 ;  prepositions,  483-484 ;  con- 
junctions,   484-485;    interjections, 

485 

Pentameter,  xviii 

Pepys,  Samuel,  360 

Period,  at  end  of  sentence?,  227; 
after  abbreviations,  227;  after  let- 
ters and  figures.  227;  after  side- 
headings,  22S;  after  topics.  228 

Period  fault,  182,  190-191,  227,  282- 
283 


Periodic  sentence,  186 

Personification,  322-323 

Phrases,  definition  of,  160-162;  ad- 
jective, 161;  adverbial,  161;  noun, 
161;  absolute.  102;  verb,  102;  in- 
defx-ndent,  162;  incorrect  use  of, 
182,  282-283 

Plagiarism,  xiii 

Plot,  434,  443-445 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  205,  372,  3S5-386, 
436-442 

Poetry,  study  of,  vi-vii;  kinds  of, 
xxiii-xxiv 

Point  of  view,  70-72;  in  sentence, 
193.  288;  in  description,  367-368; 
in  short  story,  447-448 

Points,  239 

Possessive  case,  254-255,  461-462; 
wrong  use  of  possessive  sign,  255 

Predicate  adjective,  261,  469,  473 

Predicate  nominative,  172,  253,  473 

Predicate  objective,  172,  261,  472 

Prefixes,  402-493 

Prepositions,  object  of,  172,  254,  277; 
ending  a  sentence,  277;  kinds,  483- 
484;  parsing,  484 

Pronouns,  462-466 ;  reference  of,  197- 
198,  256-258;  agreement,  256; 
kinds,  462-465 ;  properties,  462- 
465  ;  uses,  465-466 ;  parsing,  466 

Proof.in  debating,425  ;  burden  of, 426 

Proofreading,  marks  used  in,  xxx- 
xxxi ;  specimen,  xxxi-xxxii 

Prose  fiction,  study  of,  ii-iv 

Provincialisms,  295 

Punctuation,  value  of,  211;  require- 
ments of  accurate,  211;  general 
directions,  212;  comma,  212-220; 
semicolon,  221-224;  colon,  224- 
226;  period,  226-228;  question 
mark,  220;  exclamation  mark, 
229-230;  dash,  230-233;  paren- 
theses, 233-234  ;  brackets.  234-235  ; 
quotation  marks,  235-238;  apos- 
trophe, 238-239;  hyphen,  239; 
caret,  239;  points  or  asterisks, 
239;  italics,  239-241;  capital  let- 
ters, 241-245 

Quatrain,  xxi 

Question  mark,  with  direct  question, 
229;  with  doubtful  statement,  229 


XXXVlll 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Quotation  marks,  with  direct  quota- 
tions, 235 ;  long  quotations,  235- 
236;  quotation  within  quotation, 
236;  titles,  236;  with  another  mark, 
236;  miscellaneous,  237 

Quotations,  xiii;  hackneyed,  329 

Raise,  264-265,  306 

Reading,  value  of,  in  improving  com- 
position, 37 ;  provides  suggestions 
for  narration,  352-353 

Redundancy,  328 

Reference,  of  participles,  196-197, 
274-275;  of  verbal  nouns,  196- 
197,  275-276;  of  infinitives,  196- 
197,  276;  of  pronouns,  197-198, 
256-258 

Refutation  in  debating,  426 

Repetition,  needless,  327-328 

Reproduction,  as  a  means  of  self- 
cultivation,  41-42;  as  a  means  of 
cultivating  accuracy,  42 ;  three 
methods  of,  42-65 ;  by  retelling 
closely,  42-51 ;  by  condensing,  51- 
62 ;  by  expanding,  62-65 

Reviews  of  books,  407-410 

Revision  of  a  composition,  95-98 

Rhetoric,  definition  of,  2 

Rhythm,  xv;  variations  in,  xvi-xvii 

Rime,  xix 

Rime  scheme,  xx 

Rise,  264-265,  306 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  11 5-1 16 

Scansion,  xviii 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  376 

Self-cultivation  in  English,  6,  37,  41- 
42 

Semicolon,  with  coordinate  independ- 
ent clauses,  221;  with  coordinate 
dependent  clauses  or  phrases,  222; 
with  introductory  expressions,  222 

Sentence  analysis,  485-486 

Sentence  structure,  special  cautions 
concerning:  period  fault,  282-283; 
comma  fault,  283-284;  coordina- 
tion in  compound  sentences,  285- 
287  ;  parallel  construction,  287-288; 
point  of  view,  288 

Sentences,  definition  of,  159;  kinds, 
159,  181-182,  186-187;  simple,  159- 
165;  compound,  165-170;  complex, 


170-180;  compound-complex,  180- 
181;  loose,  186;  periodic,  186;  bal- 
anced, 186-187;  effect  of  different 
kinds,  187  ;  essentials  of,  189;  unity, 
190-195;  coherence,  195-200;  em- 
phasis, 201-204 ;  euphony,  204-207 

Set,  264-265,  307 

Seton,  Ernest  Thompson,  395 

Shall,  266-271 

Short  stories,  collections  of,  452 

Short  story,  definition  of,  434;  plot, 
434-  443-445;  climax,  434;  char- 
acteristics of,  434-435 ;  essentials 
of,  435-436;  singleness  of  impres- 
sion, 442-443 ;  dominant  incident, 
445-446  ;  characters,  446 ;  compli- 
cation of  plot,  446-447;  resolution 
of  plot,  446-447  ;  setting,  447  ;  point 
of  view,  447-448;  beginning,  448- 
440;  title,  440;  contrast,  449;  en- 
veloping action,  449-450;  suspense, 
450;  dialogue,  450;  sources,  451; 
study  of,  iii-iv 

Should,  266-271 

Simile,  321,  322 

Singleness  of  impression,  in  descrip- 
tion, 368-369;  in  short  story,  442- 
443 

5//,  264-265,  307 

Slang,  296-297,  392-393 

Smith,  F.  Hopkinson,  383 

Solecisms,  248,  295 

Sonnet,  xxii 

Spelling,  importance  of  correct,  487 ; 
rules,  487-490;  syllabication,  491- 
492 ;  prefixes,  492-493 ;  suffixes, 
493-494 ;  troublesome  words,  494- 
498 ;  words  frequently  confused, 
498-500;  proper  names,  500 

Spondaic  foot,  xvi 

Stanza,  xx-xxi;  ballad,  xx;  elegiac, 
XX ;  quatrain,  xxi;  Spenserian,  xxi 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  2  7, 40-41 ,  43 , 
46,  112,  113-114,  121,  138,  143, 148, 
149,  156,  205,  370,  382-383,  401- 
402 

Strunsky,  Simeon,  147-148 

Subject,  of  composition,  choice  and 
limitation,  68-69 

Subject,  of  sentence,  compound,  159, 
249 

Suffixes,  493-494 


INDEX 


XXXIX 


Suspense,  450 
Syllabication,  401-492 
Synecdoche,  324 
Synonyms,  335,  343 

Tales,  355-356 

Tautology,  327-328 

Technical  words,  2Q7 

Tenses,  cautions  rcKarding  5^0//  and 
will,  266-271;  additional  cautions, 
271-273;  definition  of,  473;  prim- 
ary, 473-474;  secondary,  474 

Tetrameter,  xviii 

Than,  254,  260;  diferent  than,  301 

Thomas,  Edward,  47 

Thorndike,  A.  H.,  141-142 

TiUe,  choice  of,  69-70;  for  short 
story,  449 

Tomlinson,  H.  M.,  371 

Topic  sentence,  133-13S;  logical  de- 
velopment, 140-150;  development 
by  repetition,  140-141 ;  develop- 
ment by  details,  141-143;  develop- 
ment by  definition,  143-144;  devel- 
opment by  specific  examples,  144; 
development  by  comparison  and 
contrast,  144-145;  development  by 
reasons  supporting  statement,  146 

Topics  for  composition,  selection  of, 
lo-ii;  sources,  lo-ii 

Transition   between  paragraphs,  94- 

95 
Transitional  paragraphs,  155 
Transitive  verbs,  472 
Translation,  49-50 
Travel  sketches,  362-363 
Trite  expressions,  328-329 
Trochaic  foot,  xv 

Unity,  law  of,  74-75;  in  paragraph, 
133-140;  in  sentence,  ipo-193;  in 
simple  narration,  348-349;  in  de- 
scription, 366-367 

Usage,  294 

Verb  phrases,  161,  162,  266-270,  474; 
conditional,    475;    potential,    475; 


obligative,  475;  emphatic,  475; 
proKressivc,  475;   passive,  476-477 

Verbal  noun,  reference  of,  IQO-107, 
275-270;  definition  of,  477.  See 
Gerund 

Verbal-noun  phrases,  160 

Verbs,  principal  parts  of,  263-264; 
six  troublesome,  264-266;  shall  and 
will,  should  and  would,  266-271; 
kinds,  471-473;  conjugation,  473- 
483;  person  and  number,  473; 
tense,  473-474;  phrases,  474-475; 
mood,  475-470;  voice,  476-477; 
verbals,  477;  regular  conjugation, 
478;  irregular  conjugation,  478; 
parsing,  483 

Verse,  definition  of,  xv;  kinds  of, 
xvii-xviii;  blank,  xxi;  free,  xxii 

Versification,  xv;  rhythm,  xv;  kinds 
of  feet,  xv-xvi ;  variations  in 
rhythm,  xvi-xvii;  kinds  of  verse, 
xvii-xviii;  scansion,  xviii;  rime, 
xix ;  couplets,  xix-xx ;  stanzas,  xx- 
xxi;  blank  verse,  xxi;  free  verse, 
xxii ;  the  sonnet,  xxii ;  kinds  of 
poetry,  xxiii-xxiv 

Vividness,  of  speech,  26-28;  in  de- 
scription, 371 

Vocabulary,  poverty  of,  333  ;  enlarge- 
ment of,  333,  336-337 

Voice,  active,  476;  passive,  476 

Vulgarisms,  295 

Was,  252 

Will,  266-271 

Words,  definition  of,  292 ;  colloquial, 
295;  dialectal,  205;  coined.  205; 
obsolete,  297  ;  technical,  207  ;  Anu'lo- 
Saxon,  333-334;  classical,  334; 
spelling,  341-342,  487-500;  pro- 
nunciation, 342;  derivation,  342; 
history,  342  ;  meanings,  342  ;  stand- 
ing of,  342 ;  illustrations  of  use, 
343  ;  combinations,  343  ;  syllabica- 
tion, 491-492;  prefixes,  492-493; 
suffixes,  403-494 

Would,  266-271 


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